1. Key indicators
Figure 1 – Key indicators overview
| Cyprus | EU-27 | ||||||||
| 2010 | 2020 | 2010 | 2020 | ||||||
| EU-level targets | 2030 target | ||||||||
| Participation in early childhood education (from age 3 to starting age of compulsory primary education) |
≥ 96% | 69.4%13 | 90.1%19 | 91.8%13 | 92.8%19 | ||||
| Low achieving eighth-graders in digital skills | < 15% | : | : | : | : | ||||
| Low achieving 15-year-olds in: | Reading | < 15% | 32.8%12 | 43.7%18 | 19.7%09,b | 22.5%18 | |||
| Maths | < 15% | 42.0%12 | 36.9%18 | 22.7%09 | 22.9%18 | ||||
| Science | < 15% | 38.0%12 | 39.0%18 | 17.8%09 | 22.3%18 | ||||
| Early leavers from education and training (age 18-24) | < 9% | 12.7% | 11.5% | 13.8% | 9.9% | ||||
| Exposure of VET graduates to work based learning | ≥ 60% | : | : | : | : | ||||
| Tertiary educational attainment (age 25-34) | ≥ 45% (2025) | 48.1% | 57.8% | 32.2% | 40.5% | ||||
| Participation of adults in learning (age 25-64) | ≥ 47% (2025) | : | : | : | : | ||||
| Other contextual indicators | |||||||||
| Education investment | Public expedienture on education as a percentage of GDP | 6.5% | 5.4%19 | 5.0% | 4.7%19 | ||||
| Expenditure on public and private institutions per FTE/student in € PPS | ISCED 1-2 | €8 79312 | €9 37518 | €6 07212,d | €6 35917,d | ||||
| ISCED 3-4 | €10 12012,d | €12 91618 | €7 36613,d | €7 76217,d | |||||
| ISCED 5-8 | €9 92612 | €8 87018 | €9 67912,d | €9 99517,d | |||||
| Early leavers from education and training (age 18-24) | Native | 7.5% | 4.9% | 12.4% | 8.7% | ||||
| EU-born | 26.6% | 25.7%u | 26.9% | 19.8% | |||||
| Non EU-born | 26.0% | 27.3% | 32.4% | 23.2% | |||||
| Upper secondary level attainment (age 20-24, ISCED 3-8) | 86.2% | 88.4% | 79.1% | 84.3% | |||||
| Tertiary educational attainment (age 25-34) | Native | 55.2% | 68.7% | 33.4% | 41.3% | ||||
| EU-born | 30.8% | 34.4% | 29.3% | 40.4% | |||||
| Non EU-born | 37.4% | 39.9% | 23.1% | 34.4% | |||||
Sources: Eurostat (UOE, LFS, COFOG); OECD (PISA). Further information can be found in Annex I and in Volume 1 (ec.europa.eu/education/monitor). Notes: The 2018 EU average on PISA reading performance does not include ES; the indicator used (ECE) refers to early-childhood education and care programmes which are considered by the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) to be ‘educational’ and therefore constitute the first level of education in education and training systems – ISCED level 0; FTE = full-time equivalent; b = break in time series, d = definition differs, u = low reliability, := not available, 09 = 2009, 12 = 2012, 13 = 2013, 17 = 2017, 18 = 2018, 19 = 2019
Figure 2 - Position in relation to strongest and weakest performers
Source: DG Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, based on data from Eurostat (LFS 2020, UOE 2019) and OECD (PISA 2018).
2. Highlights
- Cyprus has a policy framework to tackle violence and racism at school, but lacks monitoring mechanisms to improve well-being.
- Effective use of funds under the EU Recovery and Resilience Facility (RRF) could help improve educational outcomes and reduce skills gaps.
- Higher education in Cyprus responded effectively to challenges imposed by the pandemic.
- Considerable work has been done to improve vocational education and training, including continuous education and training. Adult education in Cyprus is not always well organised and continues to have a low participation rate.
3. A focus on well-being in education and training
Although Cyprus does not have an explicit definition of well-being in education, a number of national strategies aim to improve the well-being of students. ‘Health education’ in primary education, ‘Emotional empowerment’ in pre-primary education as well as humanity subjects in secondary education (e.g. Home Economics, Religion Studies, Biology, History etc.) address the promotion of mental, physical and social well-being of students. The development of personal and social skills and values is part of those lessons. Cyprus has a policy framework to tackle violence and racism at school and strategies and action plans1 to improve children’s and teachers' well-being. The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports and Youth (Ministry of Education) and the Cyprus Pedagogical Institute organise projects to support pupils and students at all levels of education, aiming to reduce the number of students dropping out from secondary education2, promote cyber safety and provide real-time advice on issues relating to illegal behaviour online. The Cyprus Agency of Quality Assurance and Accreditation in Higher Education provides feedback to universities on how they support students in improving their well-being (House of Representatives 2015).
Assessment and evaluation mechanisms could improve the impact of initiatives relating to well-being. Cyprus is taking action to support schools in preventing bullying3. However, there is no systematic monitoring mechanism for pupils’ well-being. One in three students report being bullied at least a few times a month (EU average 22%), and attend schools where bullying is widespread (OECD, 2019c). Students with low academic achievement are more exposed to frequent bullying (54.6%) than high achievers (21.1%), and reducing bullying and improving students' well-being can significantly increase learning outcomes (European Commission, 2020). Neither socio-economic status nor migrant background appear to be significant triggers for bullying, in contrast to gender. A much higher percentage of boys (40.9% vs EU average 24.4%) than girls (27.2% vs EU average 19.7%) reported being frequently bullied (OECD, 2019). As in other countries, Cypriot boys use more physical and fewer indirect forms of bullying than girls (OECD, 2019).
Figure 3 - Students' exposure to bullying by performance in reading, PISA 2018
Source: OECD, PISA 2018.
Teachers in Cyprus are highly satisfied with their jobs, but they only participate in training on well-being to a limited extent. The well-being of teachers is not regularly monitored at national level and is not the focus of policy action. Despite this, according to the 2018 OECD teaching and learning international survey (TALIS) (OECD, 2020), 91.2% of Cypriot teachers report that they are satisfied with their job and they remain so after more than 5 years of work experience (91.3%). The Cyprus Pedagogical Institute and the Cyprus Observatory on School Violence offer teachers a variety of non-compulsory seminars, which aim to develop teachers' skills in managing crises, violence and delinquency in schools and to improve teachers' psychological resilience. However, rates of teacher participation are uneven. School leaders in primary and secondary education have access to a comprehensive, compulsory training programme which includes modules on how to promote a positive school culture and climate, and manage human resources.
Surveys in Cyprus have found increased mental distress during the COVID-19 outbreak, with young people being mostly affected. The youngest age group (≤21) had the highest prevalence (21.74%) of symptoms of major depression, mostly present among students (Stylianou 2020). However, during the lockdown periods, no systematic measures were taken to improve well-being in schools. Priority was given to students' cognitive knowledge and skills, to help them cope with distance learning. Sporadic actions were taken to address the impact of the pandemic on pupils and students' mental health, heading in the right direction. A key initiative by the Ministry of Education was to set up a helpline to provide support to students and their families. Political awareness of the negative impact of the pandemic, particularly on the mental health of students, was raised in the Parliamentary Education Committee.
4. Investing in education and training
Cyprus maintains a high level of public spending on education. In 2019, general government expenditure on education increased by 6.7%, reaching the equivalent of 5.4% of the GDP (EU average 4.7%). At 13.4%, Cyprus continues to exceed the EU average of 10% for the proportion of total government expenditure devoted to education. In contrast, public spending on early childhood education is among the lowest in the EU. However, the high overall levels of spending on education does not translate into educational outcomes4 compared to countries that spend similar amounts per student, highlighting challenges with regard to the effectiveness and efficiency of investment in education in Cyprus.
The digital transition will be supported with EUR 28 million of national funds. An electronic education system for public schools will be developed as part of a broader strategy for the digital modernisation of education. Students, teachers and parents will be able to carry out a wide range of actions related to school matters electronically, such as accessing school timetables and exam schedules, apply for certificates, register students’ presence and encode teachers' leaves.
An investment of EUR 7.5 million will support energy efficiency in 25 schools, bringing education into line with measures to support climate objectives. The project entails the restructuring of the schools participating to make them into 'zero energy' schools and is funded by the European ‘Horizon’ programme.
Box 1: The National Recovery and Resilience Plan
The Cyprus' National Recovery and Resilience Plan5 (RRP) is worth a total amount of EUR 1.206 billion, of which EUR 1.006 billion will be funded in non-repayable support under the EU Recovery and Resilience Facility (RRF) during the period 2021-2026. Investments related to education, training and skills represent about 10% of the total budget for the plan. The plan contains reforms and investments focused on improving the quality and effectiveness of education and training at all levels and ages, thereby addressing key skills mismatches in the labour market and promoting employment and inclusive growth6.
The Cypriot plan aims to address the challenges of low participation in vocational education and training (VET) and lifelong learning, rising skills mismatches - particularly among young graduates - and poor digital skills. It further aims to address the quality of teaching and the availability and affordability of early childhood education and care (ECEC) for children aged four years old as well as to address capacity gaps in ECEC. Its objective is to (i) improve the quality and effectiveness of education and training at all levels, (ii) foster the uptake of labour market-relevant reskilling and upskilling opportunities, in particular regarding the twin transitions, across society regardless of employment status, skills level or age, and (iii) modernise the school structures making them fit for the digital transition.
5. Modernising early childhood and school education
Participation in early childhood education (ECE) is below the EU-level target for 2030. 90.1% of 3-6 year-olds participated in ECE in 2020, below the EU average of 92.8%, and the EU-level target of 96% by 2030. The proportion of children below the age of 3 enrolled in childcare services increased by 11.1 pps between 2009 (20%) and 2019 (31.1%), but remains below both the EU average of 35.3% and the Barcelona target of 33%. To facilitate participation of younger children in pre-primary education the Ministry of Education will continue the operation of the community schools. Fees will remain low due to governmental subsidies. Cyprus is also planning to implement a project which will cover the tuition cost for children aged from 3 to the starting age of free compulsory pre-primary education (4 years and 8 months) enrolled in public facilities, which will be co-financed by the European Social Fund (ESF+). Provisions remain insufficient, however, particularly for younger children (ETM 2019).
Through a series of reforms, the pre-primary education period is being extended. One reform, recently approved by the Council of Ministers, aimed to gradually increase the entry age into primary education to 6 (instead of 5 years and 8 months). This change was partially implemented in the school year 2020/2021 and is being fully rolled out in 2021/2022. A further reform is planned in the Cyprus' National Recovery and Resilience Plan, aiming at gradually extending free compulsory pre-primary education, starting from the age of 4 (currently 4 years and 8 months). The plan also includes investments in childcare centres accompanied by a national action plan on early childhood education. Consequently, the attendance in compulsory pre-primary education will in total be two years (ages 4-6).
Since 2015, early school leaving rates have increased, largely due to more foreign-born young people leaving school early. In 2020, 11.5% of 18-24 year-olds had not completed upper secondary education, compared to 9.2% in 2019 (an increase of 2.3 pps) and above the EU average of 9.9% and the EU-level target (<9% by 2030). The proportion of early leavers from education and training among foreign-born young people in particular continues to increase: 26.8% in 2020 compared to 23.3% in 2019. During the 2020/2021 school year, 9 838 primary school students have a migrant background, out of a total of 52 013 students. The number of students who do not have Greek as their first language is 8 291, which is equivalent to 15.9% of the total student population in primary schools. At secondary education, there were 2 286 (13.4%) foreign students in upper secondary schools, and 4 294 (18.6%) in lower secondary schools. The proportion of secondary level students having first language other than Greek was 8.7% for upper secondary and 13% for lower secondary education. The proportion of native-born early school leavers has remained almost at the same level as the previous year, 4.9% in 2020 (4.8% in 2019). The proportion of boys leaving education early (15%) is considerably higher than that of girls (8.4%), representing a gender gap of 6.6 pps. In Cyprus, the highest proportion of early leavers was reported in rural areas (12.4%), despite a decrease of 6.5 pps compared to 2010 (18.9%).
Cyprus provides support for students at risk of dropping out from secondary education. A project supported by the European Commission, completed in April 2021, aimed to improve the skills of young people in Cyprus by reducing the number of low achievers and students at risk of dropping out, as well as the total number of early leavers from education and training. A thorough analysis of the causes of students disengaging and dropping out was carried out, policy recommendations were made to improve student engagement and an action plan was drawn up to implement these effectively. The action plan includes skills support programmes, an early warning system, teacher training and a second chance schools for people aged under 18. The project also drew on experience from other EU Member States and Norway7.
Addressing underachievement in basic skills remains a priority. During the TIMSS 20198 international survey, pupils in the fourth and eighth grades achieved scores slightly below the EU average in science and above the EU average in maths. For the first time since 1995, Cypriot students scored above the 500 mark in science (511). In contrast, in 2018, PISA showed that performance among 15-year-olds in Cyprus is below the EU average. (European Commission, 2020). In TIMSS, Cyprus saw the widest difference between the scores of girls and boys in maths (19 points) among EU Member States. The pandemic risks further increasing the number of underachievers and may have a long-lasting effect on student learning outcomes. In order to support students, the Ministry of Education extended the 2019/2020 and 2020/2021 school years, giving extra days for face-to face teaching and evaluating the learning outcomes for each level of education. In addition, repetitions were planned for 2 weeks at the beginning of the 2020/2021 school year, and supporting electronic material was made available to students.
The Cyprus' Recovery and Resilience Plan aims to modernise and digitalise education. The shift to distance learning highlighted key challenges for students and teachers such as a lack of electronic equipment and digital skills. With a budget of EUR 13.8 million, a variety of projects will be financed to digitally transform schools and improve digital skills and skills in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM), including:
- the purchase of digital equipment (tablets/laptops) for students from less socio-economically advantaged backgrounds;
- the purchase of digital equipment for schools;
- training in digital skills and STEM methodology for 3 375 teachers representing around one third of all primary and secondary teachers;
- changes to curricula and the development of educational material for developing digital and STEM skills.
Box 2: Actions for school and social inclusion plus — DRASE+
During the 2021-2027 programming period of the European Structural and Investment Funds (ESIF), Cyprus will continue to use ESF+ funding to implement the ‘DRASE+, actions for school and social inclusion +’ project. The word DRASE, which means ‘act’, has also inspired the project’s motto: ‘DRoume, Agkaliazoume, Stirizoume, Entasoume’, which translates to ‘we act, we embrace, we support, we include’. The project will expand and build upon the DRASE project, which was implemented during the previous programming period.
The DRASE+ project has been expanded due to increasing migration flows in recent years in Cyprus and is being built upon the results of a peer9 counselling programme coordinated by the European Commission, entitled ‘Integration of students with a migrant background into schools in Cyprus’ (2019). The integration of migrant pupils into schools is a complex process, and should give children access to quality education and provide any necessary language, learning and socio-emotional support.
DRASE+ aims to support social inclusion, reduce early school leaving, improve learning outcomes and tackle delinquency among disadvantaged students, including students with a migrant background. It is a comprehensive programme comprising morning and afternoon activities, to develop skills in various subjects and provide multilevel support to students and their families. The programme offers additional classes and access to socio-emotional support centres, new school equipment and educational material for developing social skills. As part of the programme, students from migrant backgrounds will be provided with extra tuition in Greek.
DRASE+ will be implemented in more than 100 pre-primary and primary schools, lower and upper secondary schools and technical schools, which have been selected based on objective and measurable criteria related to the composition and characteristics of their student population.
The programme's total budget for the 2021-2027 programming period is EUR 60 million.
6. Modernising vocational education and training and adult learning
Despite efforts to improve the attractiveness of vocational education and training (VET), participation in VET remains low. Only 16.9% of upper secondary pupils were enrolled in VET in 2019, the lowest rate in the EU and well below the EU average (48.4%). Cyprus is carrying out an education reform, which includes modernising the VET system and expanding VET capacity, aiming to address low overall educational and training outcomes and improve skills more broadly. The government has set a participation target of 35% by 2025 following the completion of the new infrastructure. The construction of two Model Technical Schools accompanied by updated labour market relevant training programmes is planned under the Cyprus' RRP with the objective to provide students and educators with a well-equipped environment for learning and to increase the capacity, quality and attractiveness of VET.
Cyprus is upgrading its technical and vocational education. The aim is to upgrade skills and address skills mismatches in the labour market, improve the quality of teaching and learning systems and increase students' participation. Steps have been taken to strengthen the links between VET and labour market needs through the development of new or the review of existing curricula and the introduction of new specialisations. Students enrolled in VET had, at best, limited exposure to work-based learning. In order to increase employers' engagement, measures to facilitate placement of VET students in enterprises have been introduced. The number of evening VET schools increased from one to five in 2020, increasing learning opportunities for adults and in particular unemployed people, in order to enhance their skills or acquire new skills.
Steps have been taken to strengthen continuous vocational education and training. In 2020, the Human Resource Development Authority of Cyprus launched a special scheme to provide vocational training for unemployed people in the public sector, local government authorities, non-governmental organisations and non-profit institutions. In addition, the integrated student evaluation system began operating during the 2019/2020 school year for learners in primary schools and in the first grade of upper secondary education and technical and vocational schools. It aims to emphasise formative assessment, diagnose learner needs in relation to specific expected outcomes and intervene at an early stage for improvement. It is expected that by 2022, this system will be implemented gradually for all grades of general technical and vocational education.
Skills provision for adults in Cyprus is considered to be poor but a Lifelong Learning Strategy is being developed. Participation in adult learning (25-64) remains low, at only 4.7% in 2020, compared to an EU average of 9.2% and the 2020 target of 15%. This has also decreased compared to the previous year (5.9%), partly due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. Women's participation in lifelong learning remained stable. However, 13% of adults engaged in online learning activities in 2020 in Cyprus, representing an increase of 160% between 2019 and 2020. In 2020, the quality of adult learning improved through customised support for learners, including psychological and career counselling, financial support and family therapy for vulnerable adult learners. The new Lifelong Learning Strategy will enhance efforts and assist Cyprus to reach the EU targets in the relevant fields.
An important strength of the Cypriot adult education system is the availability of numerous free programmes in formal and non-formal education. This removes a significant obstacle to learners' participation. In addition, in higher education (in particular for postgraduate studies), there are many institutions which offer e-learning courses, such as the Open University of Cyprus.
A number of actions to support adult learning will be financed by the EU in the programming period 2021-2027. The ESF+ will support the development and promotion of individual learning accounts (ILA) while the RRF will support training initiatives to improve digital skills, upskilling and reskilling actions, and actions towards the green and digital transitions. The new Lifelong Learning Strategy currently being developed with support from the Commission's Technical Support Instrument (TSI) will help in that direction.
7. Modernising higher education
Cyprus ranks third in the EU regarding the number of adults between 25 to 34 years old holding a tertiary education degree. In 2020, the percentage stood at 57.8%, considerably above the EU average (40.5%) and the EU-level target of 45%. The rate increased by 9.7 pps in the last 10 years (vs 8.3 pps for the EU average). However, a slight decrease of 2.5 pps has been seen compared to 2019, where the proportion was 60.3%. A significant gender gap in tertiary attainment is also to be noted: 47.3% of men hold a tertiary degree, compared with 67.8% of women. This translates to a gender gap of 20.5 pps, well above the EU average of 10.8 pps. A large gap of 30.8 pps also exists between native-born (68.7%) and foreign-born (37.9%) people in Cyprus.
Figure 4 - Tertiary educational attainment (25-34) by sex, 2020
Source: Labour Force Survey, edat_lfse_03.
A national graduate tracking system is underway and will be financed under the EU Recovery and Resilience Facility. The development of the system is part of a reform aiming to address skills mismatches between the labour market and the secondary and higher education systems. It will give insight into improving education in Cyprus and will trigger the enhancement of skills across all population groups.
Cyprus has the lowest proportion of STEM graduates in the EU, currently standing at 13.8%. The number of graduates in health and STEM fields has been lower than in most EU Member States in recent years (ETM 2020). In 2019, the proportion of female STEM graduates in relation to the total number of female graduates stood at 7.7% (vs an EU average of 14.7%) with a decrease of 2.6 pps compared to 2014 (10.3%). One in three STEM graduates is a woman (36.2%). Cyprus aims to improve skills relating to STEM education through the EU Recovery and Resilience Facility.
During the lockdowns, higher education in Cyprus turned to the hybrid teaching method10. Higher education institutions in Cyprus were able to respond efficiently to the pandemic and they took advantage of distance learning methods. The semester exams took place remotely and although higher education institutions took measures to safeguard their objectivity and credibility, difficulties were noted and an evaluation could facilitate improvement in the future. Open-book exams and problem-solving exercises were recommended by the Cyprus Quality Assurance Agency11.
8. References
Creemers, B.P.M. and Kyriakides, L. (2012), Improving Quality in Education: Dynamic Approaches to School Improvement, London and New York: Routledge.
Dr Michaela Bruckmayer Silvia Galimberti (2020). Anti-bullying Practices from the Repository of the European Platform for Investing in Children (EPIC). Publications Office of the European Union.
European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2021. Teachers in Europe: Careers, Development and Well-being. Eurydice report. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.
European Commission (2019a). Education and Training Monitor — Volume II. Cyprus
European Commission (2020). Education and Training Monitor — Volume II. Cyprus
European Commission (2019). Peer counselling on integration of students with a migrant background into schools in Cyprus
House of Representatives (2015). The Quality Assurance and Accreditation of Higher Education and the Establishment and Operation of an Agency on Related Matters Law of 2015. Nicosia: File no.: 23.01.054.029-2013.
Kyriakides, L., Creemers, B.P.M., Muijs, D., Rekers-Mombarg, L., Papastylianou, D., Van Petegem, P., and Pearson, D., (2014). Using the dynamic model of educational effectiveness to design strategies and actions to face bullying, School Effectiveness and School Improvement, Vol. 25, No 1, pp. 83-10.
Kyriakides, L., Creemers, B.P.M., Panayiotou, A., and Charalambous, E., (2021). Quality and Equity in Education: Revisiting Theory and Research on Educational Effectiveness and Improvement, London and New York: Routledge.
Kyriakides, L., Kaloyirou, C., and Lindsay, G. (2006). An analysis of the Revised Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire using the Rasch measurement model. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76(4), 781-801.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sport and Youth, Annual report, 2019
OECD (2019c), PISA 2018 Results (Volume III): What School Life Means for Students’ Lives, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/acd78851-en
OECD (2020), TALIS 2018 Results (Volume II): Teachers and School Leaders as Valued Professionals, TALIS, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/19cf08df-en.
OECD (2020), How’s Life? 2020: Measuring Well-being, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9870c393-en
Stylianou N, Samouti G, Samoutis G. Mental health disorders during the COVID-19 outbreak in Cyprus. J Med Life. (2020) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7550154/
Annex I: Key indicators sources
| Indicator | Eurostat online data code |
| Participation in early childhood education | educ_uoe_enra21 |
| Low achieving eighth-graders in digital skills | IEA, ICILS. |
| Low achieving 15-year-olds in reading, maths and science | OECD (PISA) |
| Early leavers from education and training | Main data: edat_lfse_14 . Data by country of birth: edat_lfse_02 . |
| Exposure of VET graduates to work based learning | Data for the EU-level target is not available. Data collection starts in 2021. Source: EU LFS. |
| Tertiary educational attainment | Main data: edat_lfse_03 . Data by country of birth: edat_lfse_9912 . |
| Participation of adults in learning | Data for the EU-level target is not available. Data collection starts in 2022. Source: EU LFS. |
| Public expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP | gov_10a_exp |
| Expenditure on public and private institutions per student | educ_uoe_fini04 |
| Upper secondary level attainment | edat_lfse_03 |
Annex II: Structure of the education system
Source: European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2021. The Structure of the European Education Systems 2021/2022: Schematic Diagrams. Eurydice Facts and Figures. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.
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