Comparative report

Strong basic skills are a vital factor in Europe’s competitiveness, preparedness for the future and social cohesion. Today, too many young people and adults across the EU struggle with reading, math, science, digital and citizenship skills – and this is threatening people’s ability to thrive, democracy, and the innovation potential that underpins competitiveness. In response, the European Commission’s Action Plan on Basic Skills, under the Union of Skills, lays out a bold strategy to turn things around, as requested by the Commission President in her political guidelines. The plan also suggests a wider notion of basic skills that includes citizenship and digital skills to address the challenges of a rapidly evolving society and economy. This chapter looks at the latest evidence on young students in some of the basic skills prioritised in the Action Plan: mathematics, computer and information literacy and civic knowledge.

2.1. A closer look at mathematics

The capacity to reason mathematically and think logically is essential for individuals to make sound decisions in today's fast-evolving, technology-driven society. Mathematical reasoning includes, for example, the ability to understand quantities, abstraction, and variation. As one of the basic skills domains, proficiency in mathematics is linked to better academic and professional outcomes and prospects later in life. With mathematics as the focus of its 2022 assessment cycle, the OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) provides a comprehensive picture of students’ mathematics skills across EU education systems. Results indicate that a significant proportion of students (29.5%) underachieve, and few (7.9%) achieve excellence. Compared to other large, advanced economies, the EU has the second lowest (after the US) top performance rate and the second highest (after the US) underachievement rate in mathematics. During the period 2012-2022, the EU did not improve its relative performance compared to other non-EU G7 economies.

These findings are a wake-up call for action to improve young people’s basic skill levels. National-level research confirms that the COVID-19 pandemic adversely affected educational performance in many EU countries. However, COVID-19 is only part of the picture. Structural drivers are at play and provide some possible explanations for the observed decline in mathematics performance and how to address it. This section discusses three such drivers.

Firstly, PISA 2022 data show that digital distractions — including the non-educational use of digital devices during lessons — negatively affect learning. For example, 32.1% of students across the EU reported frequent digital distractions in math lessons. The findings from a a 2024 OECD working paper confirm the negative impact of excessive smartphone and social media use on student performance. The paper suggests that the use of digital devices in schools for non-educational purposes could be the main driver behind the worldwide decline in PISA scores since 2009.

When used for educational purposes, the impact of digital technologies is more nuanced. Moderate use of digital resources is often associated with better mathematics performance in PISA data, while the opposite holds true in the case of more intense use. Figure 7 shows that the association is strongly positive in most countries when students move from no use to up to one hour per day. When intensity further increases, the relationship tends to become negative (i.e. performance worsens when the number of hours per day rise), so that the overall change in mathematics performance associated with a one-hour increase in using digital devices appears negative and statistically significant in most countries. Denmark and Sweden are two notable exceptions to this pattern: in these countries, the overall change is positive and statistically significant. A 2024 European Commission (Joint Research Centre) study, controlling for a large number of potentially confounding factors, produced equally mixed results. On the one hand, the study finds no positive association between the use of digital technologies in mathematics classes and students’ mathematics performance. On the other hand, it finds that students tend to achieve higher mathematics test scores in schools providing their teachers with training in integrating digital resources into mathematics instruction. Clearly, education policies that promote a responsible use of digital resources and a purposeful integration of technology into instruction are essential.

Secondly, the shortage of teachers has worsened across Europe, exacerbated by the pandemic. Schools experiencing greater teacher shortages saw sharper learning declines. At the same time, PISA 2022 data underline the importance of teacher support . Students who feel supported by their teachers tended to perform better at mathematics, experience less anxiety, and report a greater sense of belonging in school. Teacher efficacy, in turn, is influenced by their instructional adaptability, wellbeing and working conditions. Teachers who report having sufficient time for instructional tasks and a healthy work-life balance are more likely to establish positive relationships with students and manage their classrooms effectively. Job satisfaction contributes to a teacher’s confidence and motivation.

Thirdly, another important driver of mathematics performance is parental involvement. Between 2018 and 2022, there was a sizeable decline in parents’ participation in school-based learning activities in many countries. At the same time, education systems that managed to maintain or increase levels of parental involvement saw more stable or even improved student outcomes, particularly in the case of disadvantaged students. For instance, where parents were in contact with teachers to discuss their child’s progress, mathematics scores showed a more favourable trend. Students with strong support at home also reported more positive attitudes towards school and learning in general.

According to a 2025 Eurydice report, a wide range of policy responses have been implemented since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic to address the basic skills gap across EU education systems. Many EU education systems introduced new learning support measures, most commonly through new policy frameworks and small-group tutoring during or outside regular school hours. Research shows that tutoring is among the most consistently effective interventions, particularly when offered during the school day by professionally trained staff. Notably, online tutoring — widely adopted during the pandemic — has also proven to be effective under certain conditions.

At system level, most EU countries have adopted comprehensive frameworks that integrate both long-term strategic goals and short-term targeted initiatives. These frameworks typically combine three key components: prevention, which focuses on early identification of learning difficulties; intervention, which involves tailored instruction and mentoring; and compensation, which seeks to mitigate socio-economic or other forms of disadvantages and maintain student engagement. The success of these strategies hinges on effective monitoring mechanisms and high-quality professional development for teachers.

In addition, broader curriculum reforms have been implemented to improve teaching quality and outcomes. Many education systems have increased the amount of teaching time allocated to basic skills subjects, extended the length of the school day, and revised curricula to emphasise core competencies. These reforms often aim to foster deeper learning — particularly in STEM subjects.

Another central element of recent reforms is to provide a boost to continuing professional development. Since the 2020/2021 school year, most EU education systems have introduced new or revised teacher-training programmes aimed at improving teaching in mathematics, literacy and science, and inclusive teaching practices. These programmes vary in scope and delivery, ranging from centralised national initiatives to more targeted, school-level approaches. Digital learning platforms and structured teaching materials are increasingly being used to ensure consistency and coherence in teaching practices.

2.2. Digital skills

The digital transformation is reshaping how people learn, work, and engage in civic life across the EU. As digital technologies have become integral to everyday activities, digital skills — understood as the ability to use digital tools effectively and critically — have become a basic skill for full participation in society and the labour market, as suggested in the Action Plan on Basic Skills. As people spend more time in the digital environment, their access to opportunities increases, but so does their exposure to risk. One risk that is gaining policy attention is cyberbullying. Moreover, the digital transition has also amplified the risks from misinformation and disinformation by allowing the accelerated spread of false or misleading content across online platforms, including through various forms of foreign information manipulation. These phenomena may threaten democratic discourse, public health, and social cohesion, highlighting the need for digital media literacy as a key element for preparedness.

EU countries have been investing heavily in digital infrastructure and education. Yet, despite growing access to devices and internet connectivity, not all students are acquiring the digital skills they need. Socio-economic, regional and territorial disparities, inconsistent use of technology in schools, and unequal levels of teacher preparedness continue to create gaps in digital learning outcomes.

The EU has committed to reducing the proportion of underachieving eighth-grade students (aged 13 or 14) in digital competence to below 15% by 2030. The latest figures show just how challenging it will be to meet this objective. Across the EU-22, 42.5% of students score below the minimum proficiency threshold in computer and information literacy (Figure 8) . The rate ranges from 28.0% in Czechia to 74.0% in Romania. All EU countries remain far short of the target. Moreover, all EU countries that had participated in ICILS 2013 saw a statistically significant increase in underachievement between 2013 and 2023.

In most EU countries, girls tend to outperform boys in computer and information literacy by around 8 percentage points (38.4% compared with 46.3%). However, this varies by country ranging from 2 percentage points in Czechia to 14 percentage points in Croatia. While these findings challenge the commonly held stereotype that boys have better digital skills, the gender gap narrows or disappears in countries where digital education is more embedded across the curriculum and where there is equal access to digital tools. While girls tend to outperform boys on average, boys often report higher self-efficacy in technical digital tasks, revealing a gap between performance and confidence that underscores the need for more inclusive and empowering digital education strategies.

Socio-economic background has a strong and consistent relationship with computer and information literacy. For instance, the underachievement rate of students with at least one parent who has completed university education is, on average, 32.4% compared with 48.6% for their peers with parents with lower qualifications. These differences are particularly pronounced in Hungary, Slovakia, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Portugal, where they exceed 20 percentage points. Unequal access to technology further compound these differences. Students living in households with fewer than two computers scored significantly lower than their peers, with the largest gap - over 64 points - recorded in the Flemish community of Belgium. Similarly, the quality of internet access at home plays a role: students with a stable connection scored on average 23.9 points higher than those experiencing frequent disruptions. In Romania, where nearly half of students reported connectivity problems, the performance gap reached 62.7 points. These findings reveal that digital access remains uneven and that infrastructure, though improving, is still a barrier to digital inclusion.

Teacher capacity remains a key factor in advancing digital education, though training practices vary significantly across Europe. Most countries include digital skills in both initial teacher education and professional development, and several have adopted structured national strategies. Digital skills are generally addressed in initial teacher education, but retraining practices diverge widely. A prominent issue is the teaching of informatics. In primary education, teachers usually cover digital content, but in secondary schools, informatics becomes a distinct subject requiring specialised training. Since few professionals with an informatics background enter the teaching profession, many countries retrain teachers from related disciplines such as mathematics, physics or business. In some cases, EU education systems also rely on informatics professionals without formal teaching qualifications, raising concerns about consistency and quality of the teaching offer.

Continuing professional development plays a critical role in bridging gaps left by initial training and adapting to evolving digital contents, tools and risks such as cyberbullying. According to the OECD, while many teachers participate in such training, learning activities are often short in duration — typically under four days over a period of two years — and mainly focus on basic digital skills. More effective continuing professional development is characterised by sustained, content-rich, and collaborative formats. International platforms, such as MOOCs (massive online open courses) and online communities (eTwinning, NAU, IMooX), increasingly support teacher development, but significant disparities persist in participation and impact, particularly between socio-economically advantaged and disadvantaged schools. Moreover, teachers in vocational education and training participate less in digital skills training than other teaching professionals.

2.3. Civic knowledge

Our democracies are increasingly shaped by rapid geopolitical, economic, technological, social, and cultural changes, exacerbated by the urgent demands of sustainable development and climate resilience. There are growing concerns over political and social polarisation, detachment from democratic institutions and their participatory processes. The increasing spread of misinformation and disinformation, often linked to foreign information manipulation and interference activities, particularly online, further undermines trust in democratic institutions and weakens informed civic participation.

Education plays a central role in helping young people become active, engaged, and responsible citizens, giving them the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to take part in democratic life, contribute to society, and support fairness, inclusion, and human rights. Accordingly, the Council and the European Parliament have highlighted the importance of citizenship education.

The Action Plan on Basic Skills includes citizenship and civic knowledge among the basic skills, on a par with literacy, numeracy, science and digital skills. In the interim evaluation of the European Education Area, the European Commission suggested that the Council might consider addressing citizenship education as a strategic priority, supported by a EU-level target.

The suggested target aims for at least 85% of 8th grade students (13-14 years-old) in general school education to demonstrate an adequate level of civic knowledge, as measured by the International Civic and Citizenship education Study (ICCS). The survey assesses students’ understanding of civic and citizenship concepts and institutions, as well as the cognitive skills needed to analyse and apply this knowledge when reasoning about civic and political issues and for an informed and active participation in society. Students with an adequate level of civic knowledge demonstrate understanding of democratic principles, civic responsibilities, global citizenship, and the roles of key institutions, while recognizing risks such as government-controlled media and challenges linked to globalization and environmental protection. In 2022, the EU average reaching an adequate level of civic knowledge stood at 63.2%. Figure 10 shows a high variability across countries: some report over 70% of students reaching this level, others remain below 50%, underscoring the need for targeted policy efforts.

The most striking disparities are often found within countries rather than between countries, highlighting that civic knowledge is strongly linked to students’ socioeconomic background. As for other basic skills, those from more affluent families consistently outperform their peers. Beyond socioeconomic status, other background characteristics contribute to unequal outcomes. In all participating Member States, girls outperform boys. Students who speak the language of schooling at home tend to perform better, pointing to the influence of language proficiency and varying levels of educational support. Such disparities have clear implications with regard to equity and social cohesion.

Across countries, higher levels of civic knowledge tend to be positively associated with a range of civic and citizenship outcomes, including self-efficacy, engagement, attitudes, and values. Students with higher civic knowledge tend to talk more often about civic and political issues outside of school. These students are also less likely to rely on social media or online platforms, when engaging with civic or social issues. This is especially important given the growing concerns about misinformation, disinformation online and foreign information manipulation and interference threats. The picture is more mixed when it comes to expectations of active political and social involvement. In nearly half of the countries, students with higher civic knowledge are consistently more willing to express their views through legal means, peaceful protests, or environmental actions. They are also more likely to see themselves as active participants in society when they grow up. However, in some countries, students with lower civic knowledge are actually more likely to join political parties, attend demonstrations, or support campaigns.

In addition to actual or potential participation, civic knowledge shapes how young people perceive democratic institutions. In nearly all countries, students with an adequate level of civic knowledge report greater awareness of the functioning of democratic institutions and better understanding of the factors that may undermine democratic systems. On average, they score 7 points higher than their peers with lower civic knowledge in the ICCS test. The most notable differences are observed in Sweden (+10 points), followed by Poland, Italy, the Netherlands, and Estonia (+8 points each). Civic knowledge and trust in government are also closely related. While in some countries, such as the Netherlands, Sweden, and Estonia, students with higher civic knowledge express more trust, in several other countries, including Bulgaria, Italy, Malta, and Romania, they report lower levels of trust. This finding should be viewed in the broader context of lower trust in government among younger generations compared to those over 50, as highlighted in 2024 OECD report.

ICCS also shows that students with higher civic knowledge also express stronger commitment to civic values, including gender equality (+10 points), equal rights for ethnic groups (+7 points) and more positive attitudes toward migrants (+4 points). Students with higher civic knowledge display greater concern about environmental issues and the global dimension of citizenship, which would suggest that civic knowledge is a key entry point for preparing citizens who are committed to addressing global challenges, including climate change.