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Education and Training Monitor 2024

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Comparative report

Chapter 2. Early childhood education and care

2.1. Broadening participation

EU-level 2030 target: ‘At least 96% of children between 3 years old and the starting age for compulsory primary education should participate in early childhood education and care by 2030.’

EU-level 2030 target(83): ‘At least 45% of children below the age of 3 participate in formal childcare, with specific targets applying to EU countries that have yet to reach the 2002 goals.’

The EU is slowly advancing towards reaching its 2030 target set for the share of children between 3 years old and the starting age for compulsory primary education participating in early childhood education and care (ECEC). The rate stood at 93.1% in 2022, up by 0.6 percentage points since 2021. Most EU countries now have participation rates above 90%(84) and 7 of them(85) have reached the 2030 EU-level target of at least 96%. By contrast, Romania and Slovakia record below-80% rates in 2022(86). Between 2021 and 2022, 8 other EU countries recorded no progress or a decrease(87). On the other hand, there was a substantial year-to-year increase in participation rates in Portugal (+5.8) and in Lithuania (+4.6) due to recent reforms(88).

Looking at a longer period, participation has risen by 1.9 percentage points since 2014, driven by a gradual extension of the age of every child’s legal entitlement to ECEC or by the introduction of compulsory participation(89). Changes above 10 percentage points have been recorded in Ireland, Lithuania, Poland, Croatia, and Cyprus. The rate decreased in Romania, Malta, Bulgaria, Germany, Italy, and Denmark in the same period(90).

Figure 7. Participation in early childhood education and care from the age of 3 is lower the further away it is from compulsory schooling age
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Meanwhile, participation increases progressively by age (Figure 7). Older children (age 5+) are more likely to attend ECEC (an average of 96.4% in 2022) than 3-year-olds, for whom most EU countries record rates below 90%, the average being 88.6% in 2022. Attendance is often compulsory(91) for older children, as the year before the start of primary education is considered preparatory(92). For 3-year-olds(93), ECEC is compulsory only in France and Hungary, while a legal entitlement to a place in ECEC exists in 13 EU countries (Figure 8), even if families may decide not to enrol their child(94).

Figure 8. Only a few countries provide free-of-charge early childhood education and care for the youngest children
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In countries with a legal entitlement to ECEC, provision is not necessarily free.

Figure 8 shows that the availability of ECEC free of charge increases significantly at age 3 and becomes almost universal the year before entering primary education, when compulsory ECEC is more common. For the youngest children, in 21 EU countries, most families pay income-dependent fees, of which the levels(95) and regulation(96) affect accessibility and therefore also participation(97). ECEC provision can also be free of charge without a guaranteed place. In such cases, lack of infrastructure may hinder participation.

Box 5. The European Child Guarantee Monitoring Framework

A 2021 Council Recommendation established the European Child Guarantee, to prevent and combat social exclusion by guaranteeing that children in need have effective access to a set of key services, including free ECEC. Attending high-quality ECEC(98) is associated with improved cognitive skills, school readiness and later academic achievement, and, by extension, future employment prospects. These positive effects are stronger among children from disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds.

To implement the European Child Guarantee, EU countries have prepared national action plans covering the period until 2030. These describe the existing and planned national and subnational policy measures. Every 2 years, countries are invited to report on progress achieved.

In addition, the European Commission and the Social Protection Committee have put in place a common monitoring framework to assess progress towards implementation, identify good practices, and foster mutual learning. The framework covers key aspects of the Child Guarantee, such as the size of its target group (children in need) and its effective and free access to ECEC, education, at least one healthy meal per school day, healthcare, and adequate housing.

Participation under the age of 3 is much lower on average. Only 37.4% of children below 3 were in formal childcare(99) or education in 2023 and 26.7% participated at least 25 hours per week (Figure 9)(100). The rate is 7.6 percentage points lower than the dedicated 2030 EU-level target of at least 45%. However, the average participation rate in this age bracket has increased by 1.6 percentage points since 2022 and 7.5 percentage points since 2015. Substantial improvements of more than 15 percentage points were recorded in France, Spain, Estonia, Croatia, Cyprus, Greece, Slovenia, the Netherlands, and Malta between 2015 and 2023.

Figure 9. Participation in formal childcare or education of children below the age of 3 varies substantially across the EU
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The EU average participation below age 3 masks substantial variation, with country-specific rates ranging from 1.0% in Slovakia to 69.8% in Denmark and 73.3% in the Netherlands. These figures reflect, among other things, differences in employment and childcare leave policies or in availability of ECEC infrastructure. Most families with children under the age of 3 face a childcare gap(101). This is a period when a family is not covered by adequate childcare leave, and the child does not have access to a guaranteed place in ECEC. In this case, families may opt for other types of childcare(102), including informal arrangements(103) such as relying on relatives or other adults (who may also be called upon when the number of free-of-charge or subsided hours does not fully meet the demand from families(104)).

Box 6. Measures to increase participation in ECEC: examples from the 2024 Education and Training Monitor’s country reports

Easing access to and improving participation in ECEC – especially when it comes to the most vulnerable children – are at the centre of EU countries’ investment and policy efforts. In the Netherlands, a new policy initiative called the Young Child Development Programme started in autumn 2023. The programme aims to enhance equity by increasing the participation rates of disadvantaged children in early childhood education and preschool facilities and by making the transition from childcare to preschool smoother. The programme is connected to the National Programme for Liveability and Safety, an area-based initiative encompassing housing, health, and poverty in 20 urbanised neighbourhoods.

In March 2024, Cyprus adopted a reform to gradually extend compulsory pre-primary education from the age of 4 (instead of 4 years and 8 months), supported by the Recovery and Resilience Facility. Implementation has started from the 2024/2025 school year with the aim to be fully completed by 2031. Measures are planned to increase the affordability and quality of ECEC with the help of EU funds, namely the European Social Fund Plus, the Recovery and Resilience Facility, and the EU’s technical support instrument. In particular, the expansion of capacities planned under the Recovery and Resilience Facility is a key investment.

Poland has launched a wide-ranging reform of childcare to improve its affordability and accessibility. Under the 2022-2029 ‘Active Toddler’ programme, Poland has launched investments to create 102 577 new childcare places, supported by EU funds. In addition, it is planning a sustainable financing system for running childcare facilities. As of October 2024, working parents of children aged between 12-35 months can receive up to EUR 350 (EUR 442 for children with disabilities) per month to support childcare costs. The revised quality standards for childcare providers have undergone public consultation and are to be binding from January 2026.

Ensuring ECEC affordability is key to promoting the participation of disadvantaged children who benefit the most from it(105). However, in almost all EU countries, the share of children at risk of poverty or social exclusion who are in formal childcare or education is consistently lower than the share among children not at risk(106). The participation gap is 7.8 percentage points on average for children in the older age group (3+) and no less than 15.8 percentage points for children aged 0-2 (Figure 10)(107). In the youngest age bracket, the gap is over 25 percentage points in Cyprus, Finland, and Luxembourg – and tops 35 percentage points in France, Malta, and the Netherlands.

Figure 10. Children at risk of poverty or social exclusion are less likely to participate in formal childcare or education
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2.2. ECEC for sustainability

High-quality ECEC lays the groundwork for sustainability values, vision, and mindset(108). The early years are a crucial time for developing an environmental stewardship through close contact with nature. This contributes to closing the knowledge-action gap described in Chapter 1. Except for Ireland, Croatia, and the Netherlands(109), all EU countries refer to sustainability in their curricula for ECEC, usually within a broader area of learning or development, although there are some differences in terms of target age and depth of coverage. ECEC can build on well-established traditions to integrate learning for sustainability. Many pedagogies and practices, such as holistic and integrated approaches, align with effective learning for sustainability(110).

All EU countries, except for Croatia, Ireland, and the Netherlands, include sustainability in their ECEC curricula.

Across the EU, the topics related to sustainability are mainly "Included as a subtopic within a broader area" in ECEC curricula (Figure 11). Only in Denmark, Germany, Cyprus, and Finland does sustainability feature as one of the primary areas of learning or as a cross-curricular theme. When sustainability is integrated as a subtopic within broader areas of curricula for ECEC, it is subsumed under natural sciences, knowledge of the world, and knowledge of the environment. Additionally, references to sustainability may be found in non-thematic areas of educational guidelines, which focus on pedagogical principles, activities, or the learning environment. The depth of references varies significantly across countries, from concise mentions to detailed learning outcomes and activities(111).

Figure 11. Sustainability is embedded in the ECEC guidelines in almost all EU countries

Source: European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice (forthcoming).

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When it comes to the age range covered, the coverage of sustainability topics may encompass the entire ECEC phase, apply solely to the provision for younger children, or concern pre-primary education for older children exclusively. Variations mostly stem from the organisation of ECEC curricula(112) – whether they are integrated for the entire ECEC period or different by age group. Countries that issue integrated educational guidelines for the entire period of ECEC usually establish content on learning for sustainability from the earliest age. In 8 EU education systems(113), there are no mandatory educational frameworks for children aged below 3. As such, there are no compulsory references to sustainability in these systems for younger children.

Main takeaway

At 93.1% in 2022, the overall share of children between the age of 3 and the start of compulsory primary education enrolled in early childhood education and care (ECEC) was up by 0.6 percentage points compared with 2021 and 1.9 compared with 2014. Recent progress has been remarkable in Portugal and Lithuania due to reforms. Participation varies by age, with older children showing higher rates in all EU countries, as attendance is often compulsory the year before entering primary education. For younger children, a legal entitlement to ECEC may exist, even if provision may not be free. This might explain the substantial participation gap (15.8 percentage points) between children at risk of poverty or social exclusion and those not at risk. As for learning for sustainability, the relevant topics are covered in the ECEC guidelines of most EU education systems. However, the target age and the depth of coverage vary a lot.

Notes

  • 83.Originating in the 2022 Council Recommendation on early childhood education and care: the Barcelona targets for 2030, as part of the larger European Care Strategy. This target is accompanied by specific targets for those countries that did not reach the EU-level targets set in 2002. These countries should increase participation in relation to their respective participation rates as follows: (i) by at least 90% for EU countries whose participation rate was under 20%; or (ii) by at least 45%, or until they reach a participation rate of at least 45%, for EU countries whose current participation rate is between 20% and 33%. The participation rate used as a reference was calculated as the 2017-2021 average participation rate in formal childcare of children under the age of 3.

  • 84.Above 90% ECEC participation rates are found across 19 EU countries. Regional and territorial disparities persist. The highest rates are generally recorded in the westernmost regions and lower rates across most eastern regions. Monitor Toolbox See the 2024 European Commission Communication on a long-term vision for the EU’s rural areas; the 2024 European Commission report on economic, social, and territorial cohesion; the 2024 Eurostat regional yearbook; and the 2024 Eurofound report on the role of human capital inequalities in social cohesion and convergence.

  • 85.France, Belgium, Denmark, Lithuania, Spain, Sweden, and Portugal.

  • 86.The Romanian rate decreased by 9.4 percentage points between 2014 and 2022 and by 0.8 percentage point between 2021 and 2022. The Slovakian rate was on a positive trend until 2020. Monitor Toolbox

  • 87.Czechia, Cyprus, Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Romania, Finland, and Sweden. See the 2024 Education and Training Monitor’s country reports for more information.

  • 88.See the 2024 Education and Training Monitor’s country reports for Lithuania and Portugal for more information.

  • 89.See a forthcoming Eurydice report on key data on ECEC. In addition, national efforts to improve quality may also have helped increase enrolment rates. See the 2024 Education and Training Monitor’s country reports for more information.

  • 90.Romania (-9.4 percentage points), Malta (-8.0), Bulgaria (-5.1), Germany (-2.7), Italy (-2.4), and Denmark (-0.4). See the 2024 Education and Training Monitor’s country reports for more information.

  • 91.In 11 EU countries (Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Czechia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Netherlands, Poland, Slovakia, and Sweden), attendance in ECEC is compulsory when children are 5 years old or over. In the other EU countries, compulsory ECEC either starts earlier (France and Hungary at age 3; Bulgaria, Cyprus, Greece, Luxembourg, and Romania at age 4) or does not exist. Maltese children are enrolled in primary education at age 5. See a forthcoming Eurydice report on key data on ECEC.

  • 92.SDG indicator 4.2.2 captures the participation rate in organised learning 1 year before the official primary entry age.

  • 93.Only 7 EU countries (Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Slovenia, and Sweden) guarantee a place in ECEC for every child from an early age (6-18 months), often immediately after the end of childcare leave. See the 2024 Eurydice system-level indicators. Monitor Toolbox

  • 94.Participation is affected by parental background, monetary and material means, other household characteristics, and physical accessibility. For an analysis of the main reasons for not using formal childcare, see a 2022 European Commission report on employment and social developments in Europe, as well as a 2020 Eurofound report on access to care services.

  • 95.For a cross-country analysis of childcare support, see the 2022 OECD Family Database and a 2022 OECD report on net childcare costs in EU countries.

  • 96.Moreover, the legal entitlement defines the number of guaranteed publicly subsidised or free-of-charge ECEC hours that every family can claim. The place guarantee for ECEC varies in terms of hours, from a full working week (30 hours or more) to less than 10 hours per week. The number of mandatory hours can also vary when participation is compulsory. The guarantee of full-time ECEC usually aims to relieve some work-life imbalances faced by working parents. See the 2024 Eurydice system-level indicators. Monitor Toolbox

  • 97.Most countries subsidise ECEC settings directly and may, in addition, help families pay their ECEC costs. Tax relief is another common instrument. Partial compensation for fees paid by families for private provision can also be provided.

  • 98.Poor quality ECEC can have detrimental effects on children’s development. Aspects of ECEC quality include affordability, inclusiveness, a high-quality workforce with supportive working conditions, transparent and regular monitoring, good governance, and funding. See the 2019 Council Recommendation on high-quality ECEC systems.

  • 99.Formal childcare includes any kind of ECEC programmes regardless of content, in other words, early childhood educational development programmes and childcare provision not intentionally designed to support a child’s development. In 2023, 11 EU countries reported that national ECEC services for children under the age of 3 did not meet the requirements to be classified as early childhood educational development programmes.

  • 100.Participation is more prevalent over 25 hours in all EU countries apart from Czechia, Austria, and the Netherlands. Monitor Toolbox

  • 101.See the 2024 Eurydice system-level indicators. Monitor Toolbox

  • 102.Other types of childcare include care by an unregulated childminder, grandparents, other household members (excluding parents), other relatives, friends, or neighbours. Such types of childcare may also be the first choice of parents who choose not to enrol their child in ECEC when attendance is not mandatory.

  • 103.See the 2022 OECD Family Database for a more in-depth analysis of informal arrangements by age and socio-economic background.

  • 104.Such informal childcare arrangements seem to complement the formal provision. At EU level, 2023 participation of children under the age of 3 in other types of childcare is more prevalent for less than 30 hours per week (15.6%) than it is for 30 hours or over (4.6%). The share of children under the age of 3 attending other types of childcare varies significantly across the EU, ranging from 4.4% in Finland to 42.9% in Greece. A similar trend exists for the older age group. The incompatibility of school hours with parents’ working hours as well as a lack of out-of-school-hours services may be associated with the use of informal care also for older children. Monitor Toolbox

  • 105.An early learning environment that provides opportunities to engage in stimulating activities and social interactions can compensate for the risks that children from disadvantaged backgrounds fall behind or do not reach their full developmental potential. See also a 2023 European Commission (Joint Research Centre) report on early-life conditions and educational attainment.

  • 106.Latvia is an exception, because its share of children at risk of poverty or social exclusion who are in formal childcare or education is comparatively high.

  • 107.Monitor Toolbox

  • 108.This section draws upon a forthcoming Eurydice report on key data on ECEC. See also the 2022 Staff Working Document underpinning the European Commission proposal for the 2022 Council Recommendation on learning for the green transition and sustainable development.

  • 109.In Croatia and the Netherlands, sustainability is not addressed in national educational guidelines. In Ireland, sustainability topics included in the curriculum framework are formulated as suggested learning opportunities and are not mandatory for settings to follow. Monitor Toolbox See a forthcoming Eurydice report on key data on ECEC.

  • 110.Other approaches are outdoor learning; experiential and project-based learning; and participation of parents and communities. See the 2022 Staff Working Document underpinning the European Commission proposal for the Council Recommendation, as well as the 2023 Council Conclusions on skills and competences for the green transition.

  • 111.For instance, in the Flemish community of Belgium, references to learning for sustainability in the developmental aims for older children are succinct. The educational guidelines outline a single aim for science (‘the preschoolers show an attitude of care and respect for nature’). By contrast, in Finland, sustainability is a cross-cutting theme of the national core curriculum for ECEC, which is included in the underlying values, operational culture, learning environment, the transversal competences, and the learning area ‘exploring and interacting with my environment’. See a forthcoming Eurydice report on key data on ECEC.

  • 112.For more details about educational guidelines, see a forthcoming Eurydice report on key data on ECEC.

  • 113.The Flemish and German-speaking communities of Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechia, Greece, Cyprus, the Netherlands, and Slovakia. Monitor Toolbox See a forthcoming Eurydice report on key data on ECEC.