Country report

1. STEM education

Enrolment in STEM studies is high and increasing, but very few students continue to doctoral level in ICT. In 2023, 28.6% of students were enrolled in a tertiary STEM programme, above the EU average of 26.9%, but below the proposed EU-level 2030 target of 32%. The share of female students, at 35.6%, is higher than the EU average (32.2%), but still below the proposed EU-level target of 40%. The number of all enrolments in natural science and ICT has been increasing, with an especially notable 30% increase in ICT between 2015 and 2023. With 0.8% of all students enrolled at PhD level studying ICT studies, Croatia has one of the lowest shares in the EU (average: 3.8%), far below the proposed EU-level 2030 target of 5%. More graduates are needed in mathematics, physics, ICT, medicine and pharmacy (CES, 2024). Employability of all STEM graduates is good, but it is best for the ICT and technical fields (see also the chapter on higher education) (ASHE, 2025).

Several recent reforms have focused on increasing STEM competencies. There is no dedicated STEM strategy, but various strategic documents recognise the need to improve relevant basic skills, incorporate more STEM subjects, attract STEM teachers and increase the number of ICT specialists. Between 2019 and 2023, the e-Schools project and the curricular reform increased the use of ICT in teaching, provided schools with equipment and provided teachers with training and digital teaching content. The e-Universities project (2022-2025) is now doing similar work in higher education (HE). The whole-day school project increased mathematics instruction by one hour a week, introduced natural science in grades 1-6 and made information and digital competencies mandatory in all grades of primary school. The Digital Croatia Strategy contains a measure for increasing the number of ICT experts in the labour market (planned budget of EUR 93 million), which includes awarding STEM and ICT scholarships in HE (Digital Croatia Strategy, 2023). Civil society organisations and the private sector are active in STEM initiatives, organising activities and donating equipment.

A lack of qualified STEM subject teachers is a challenge for the development of STEM skills. Qualified STEM teachers are lacking in primary and secondary schools (particularly for mathematics, physics and computer science) due to low salaries reducing interest in the profession (Croatian Government, OG 38/2024). Hiring unqualified teachers may affect teaching quality (Erceg et al., 2023). The introduction of scholarships for students of STEM teachers’ studies in 2022 has stopped the drop in enrolments in those studies. In May 2025, 144 STEM teacher graduates who received this scholarship were employed in schools in Croatia.

Although the share of learners enrolled in vocational education and training (VET) in STEM fields is above the EU average, the share of women is relatively low. In Croatia, 41.4% of pupils enrolled in medium-level VET in 2023 were in STEM fields, which is above the EU average of 36.3%, but below the EU-wide 2030 target of at least 45%. Among them, fewer than one in five was female (HR 17.4%), above the EU average (15.4%) but well below the EU-wide target of at least 25% by 2030.

Croatia aims to enhance education through AI and emerging technologies. In 2023, Croatia launched the ‘BrAIn’ project funded by the ESF+. EUR 16 million have been allocated to explore the application of digital technologies based on artificial intelligence in education. This project aims to develop curricula focusing on emerging digital technologies and improve digital competences among teachers and learners. It includes creating a smart recommendation system to optimise learning outcomes and support personalised learning, as well as fostering critical thinking about the ethical and social implications of AI technologies. This curriculum was piloted in the 2024/25 academic year (Cedefop, & ReferNet, 2025a).

2. Early childhood education and care

Participation in early childhood education and care (ECEC) continues to increase following major infrastructure investments, but it is still low. In 2024, 30.2% of children under three were enrolled in formal childcare (vs EU 39.3%), 0.6 percentage points (pps) higher than in 2023 and above the national Barcelona target for 2030 of 29.9%. However, only 8.2% of children under three at risk of poverty or social exclusion participate in formal childcare. In 2023, the participation rate of children between the age of three and the beginning of compulsory primary education was 85.7%, 2.2 pps higher than in 2022, but still among the lowest in the EU (EU average: 94.6%). There are also regional differences. Rural areas struggle to hire qualified ECEC teachers (World Bank, 2024). Major investments in ECEC infrastructure made since 2016 (supported by EU funding or from national resources) significantly expanded ECEC capacity. For children under three, participation has nearly doubled since 2016, growing from 15.7% to 30.2%, and for those over three it has increased by 15.2 pps. A model of state co-financing, introduced in October 2023, which complements financing by local governments, significantly increased the total ECEC expenditure. In 2024, state co-financing covered 29% of total expenditure for ECEC.

Working conditions and salaries of ECEC teachers still vary by location, affecting the attractiveness of the profession. Despite the new model of state financing, which aims to reduce disparities, and legal requirements that ECEC teachers’ salaries should be on par with primary school teachers’, differences in salaries and working conditions between ECEC facilities belonging to different founders persist. The association of ECEC teachers is advocating for the government to take over the financing of ECEC teachers’ salaries to address disparities, as many facilities struggle to meet State pedagogical standard due to a lack of personnel (Udruga Sidro, 2024). Some trade unions negotiated collective agreement with the founders.

A shortage of ECEC teachers and specialists persists and negatively affects participation of children with special educational needs. The number of ECEC teachers has increased by 761 between 2023/2024 and 2024/2025 (CBS 2024b and CBS 2025). Enrolment quotas for ECEC teachers’ studies increased between 2019 and 2023, rising from 686 to 957 places. However, the interest in enrolment has declined since 2022, particularly for the self-financed part-time study programmes. In 2022, 17% of available places remained unfilled, increasing to 21.5% in 2023 (Domović and Drvodelić, 2024). Principals of ECEC facilities highlight the lack of specialists such as educational rehabilitators and speech therapists. This is detrimental to the chances for children with special needs (SEN) to enrol in ECEC, as they can often only enrol if the facility has a sufficient number of ECEC teachers and expert associates. A lack of such staff can also shorten the time SEN children spend in ECEC during the day (Ombudswoman, 2024).

Requalification programmes for primary teachers to become ECEC teachers have started in five universities. In May 2024, 68 students were enrolled in such programmes. The programmes are intended for primary school teachers who have started working as ECEC teachers and need to complete requalification within two years. They include practical training in ECEC facilities. Participants can finance their studies through vouchers financed under the national recovery and resilience plan (RRP).

3. School education and basic skills

Students’ mathematics and digital skills are below the EU average. The underachievement rate is high in mathematics (32.9% vs EU 29.5%), but below the EU average in reading and science (OECD, 2023). Among the disadvantaged, 15.8% achieve good results in at least one basic skill, below the EU average (16.3%). Among the advantaged, the share is 51.1% (vs EU 59%). According to the International Computer and Information Literacy Study (ICILS) 2023, 47% of eighth grade students do not reach a basic level of digital skills, much higher than the EU average (43%) or proposed EU-level 2030 target of below 15%. This is in strong contrast to the self-reported strong digital competencies in DESI 2023 for 16-19-year-olds (90.29% with basic or above basic digital skills vs EU 66.49%). In 2025, Croatia received a country specific recommendation to ensure stronger educational foundations at every level, in particular for basic and STEM skills, and to strengthen upskilling and reskilling.

While students do not leave education early, they are increasingly absent from classes. The rate of early leavers from education and training remained 2.0% in 2024, the lowest in the EU (EU 9.3%). However, the number of absences from classes has significantly increased in the last 10 years. In primary schools, it has increased by 69%: (from 46.1 absences per pupil in 2013/2014 to 77.7 in 2023/2024). In secondary schools, it has increased by 35.43% (from 85.65 absences per pupil in 2013/2014 to 115.99 in 2023/2024). Only justified absences have increased, while unjustified ones have decreased, especially in secondary school.

Further efforts to address the needs of students with SEN would be beneficial. One of the key areas for improvement is enhancing teachers’ competencies in primary and secondary schools to better adapt their teaching to SEN. The new Ordinance on Teaching Assistants and Expert Communication Mediators currently limits the number of assistants per class to only two, regardless of the number of SEN pupils in it (Ombudswoman, 2024).

Safety in schools has become a top priority. In December 2024, an adult former pupil entered a school in Zagreb, resulting in the tragic loss of one pupil and injuries to a teacher and several other pupils. The Ministry of Science, Education and Youth adopted the Protocol on Control of Entry and Exit in Schools (MZOM, 2025), implementing a new lockdown procedure: the school doors must be locked during school time, except for 30 minutes before the beginning of the first lesson and 15 minutes after the end of the last one. Pupils may not leave the school during breaks, except to go to the schoolyard during a long break. Parents and external visitors can enter only upon invitation or prior notice, at an agreed time. Identity checks are obligatory and additional specially trained staff need to be employed to take care of school safety. Employment of 863 security staff members has been approved for 2025/2026.

Civic skills of students are good, but the gender gap is wide. In 2022, 73.7% of pupils in the eighth grade had a suitable level of civic knowledge, above the EU average of 63%. Girls score 32 points higher than boys, one of the wider gender gaps in the EU (average: 26 points gap). Civic education is taught as a cross-curricular theme. Nevertheless, the Ombudswoman for Children has observed that children do not know their rights (Ombudswoman, 2024, p. 80).

Guidelines have been developed for the cross-curricular subjects and the new whole-day school pilot’s subjects. As part of the whole-day school pilot project, guidelines have been developed for implementing all seven cross-curricular themes in grades 1, 2, 5 and 6 of primary schools (MZOM, 2024b). They offer specific examples for integrating cross-curricular themes into subject curricula and encourage teacher collaboration. They also help identify implementation opportunities in daily teaching, taking into account varying school resources and conditions, and proposing flexible models that can meet the needs of individual schools. They can also be used by all other primary schools in Croatia. Guidelines have also been developed for implementing the curriculum of the new subjects developed for the whole-day school project: Society and Community, Practical Skills, Natural Sciences, Information and Digital Competencies and World and Me (MZOM, 2024a). They emphasise the use of interactive, experiential learning strategies and cross-disciplinary connections, and provide examples of specific learning outcomes for each grade level.

Transition of primary schools to a single shift may be delayed until further progress is made in the necessary related infrastructure development. The State Audit Office report shows considerable delays with the contracting of infrastructure projects financed under the RRP necessary for the transition to single shift. A major acceleration would be necessary to allow investments under the RRP to be completed by the final deadline of August 2026 (State Audit Office, 2025). Ministry reports that by September 2025 394 approvals (271 schools and 123 halls) have been issued, and over 50% of the grant funds have been contracted for 104 primary schools and 79 sports halls, which nevertheless falls short of the needs (according to the State Audit Office report 619 primary schools operate in multiple shifts and 411 schools lack sports halls). Cohesion policy also supports the transition to single shift (EUR 122 million), but the call has not yet been launched.

Teacher shortages, especially in disadvantaged areas, represent a risk to the quality of education. While there is an oversupply of class teachers in the early stages of compulsory education, Croatia faces a persistent shortage of qualified subject teachers in secondary education, especially in STEM subjects. Teacher shortages are also a challenge in remote and depopulated areas, underdeveloped areas and areas where people generally have lower levels of education. This further reduces children’s chances to access quality education. More psychologists, speech therapists and other support staff are also needed in schools (Bakić et al., 2024). Measures to attract high-quality candidates to the teaching profession, to motivate and retain existing staff and improve professional development models for teachers and principals could increase teaching quality, while improving the attractiveness of the profession. Experts recommend developing databases for monitoring demand and supply, numbers of unqualified teachers and attrition rates in order to help analyse the teacher shortage situation and provide insights (Domović and Drvodelić, 2024).

4. Vocational education and training

Croatia continues enhancing the labour market relevance of VET. It has one of the highest shares of learners in medium-level education enrolled in vocational programmes in the EU (70.6% vs EU 52.4% in 2023). However, the employment rate of recent VET graduates is still below the EU average (75.7% vs EU 80.0% in 2024). The new modular VET curricula introduced as from 2025/26 strongly focus on aligning VET with labour market needs by increasing the proportion of work-based learning across all VET qualifications (Cedefop & ReferNet, 2025b). Work is ongoing to increase participation in work-based learning (only 38.3% of recent VET graduates in 2024, compared to EU average of 65.2%) by providing incentives for learners and employers. In 2024/25, more than 12 800 pupils participated in work-based learning in enterprises and crafts. Company involvement remained high with 892 companies participating. Labour market data monitoring is being developed with the support of the ESF+ to effectively align education with market needs (Cedefop & ReferNet, 2025c).

Major reforms of the Croatian VET system require more teacher support and training. In addition to ongoing efforts to align VET curricula with the labour market, intensified teacher training is provided toprepare them for launch of the curricula reform. The evaluation of the pilot for modular curricula in June 2024 revealed that teachers were satisfied with the opportunities to select content independently. However, it also highlighted the need for ongoing teacher support and training during the transition phase (Cedefop & ReferNet Croatia, 2024). Training offered to company trainers is aligned with the new continuous professional development model for VET teachers and focuses on improving pedagogical competences. The training covers topics such as planning lessons, monitoring student progress, conducting motivational conversations with learners and teaching students with special needs.

5. Tertiary education

Tertiary educational attainment (TEA) is increasing but remains below the EU average with gaps according to gender, region and level of urbanisation. In 2024, the TEA rate of people aged 25-34 was 39.4%, 0.6 pps higher than in 2023. It is still below the EU average of 44.2% and the EU-level target of 45%. The gender gap in favour of women is one of highest in the EU at 20.5 pps. The TEA rate of young people living in cities is 21.9 pps higher than for young people in rural areas, and this gap has increased by 1.2 pps since 2023. There are also big regional variations, with the TEA rate in the City of Zagreb (56.8%) more than twice that of the Pannonian region (26.4%). ERDF provides funding (EUR 47.6 million) for student dormitories, helping students with disadvantaged background access HE. In 2023, only 8.7% of HE graduates from Croatia engaged in mobility, lower than the EU average of 11.0%) and significantly below the EU target for 2030 of 23%. EU’s Technical Support Instrument is helping to monitor progression and completion among HE students and design policies to increase TEA rates.

A mismatch between HE and labour market demand remains a challenge. In 2024, the employment rate of recent HE graduates (20-34 years) was 85.9% (EU: 86.7%). Employability is influenced by a mismatch between the needs of the labour market and the fields of study chosen by students. Students are most frequently enrolling in social science’ studies (CBS, 2024a), but according to the recommendations of the Croatian Employment Service based on labour market needs, more places are needed in natural and technical sciences (CES, 2024), which is also confirmed by research on employability (ASHE, 2025). The European Social Fund is supporting actions to improve employability through traineeships in cooperation with employers.

The signing of performance agreements with public universities is delayed. A change in legislation in October 2022 introduced performance agreements as a new way of financing higher education institutions (HEIs) and scientific institutes. Since then, agreements have been signed with the scientific institutes and two smaller universities of applied sciences, but not with the public universities. Negotiations have begun with all nine public universities, but they have not been finalised. The Independent Union of Science and Higher Education has raised concerns about potential delays or failures in contract signing, warning that such issues could negatively impact the HE system.

Digitalisation of the HE system is progressing. The information system for registers in HE, consisting of four registers, is in development. The register of digital diplomas has been completed. It contains digital diplomas issued after 1 January 2024 and data on diplomas issued before that but after 1 January 1984. Registers of students, employees of public HEIs, and applicants to study programmes (both for public and private HEIs) are being developed.

6. Adult skills and learning

Croatia is making good progress in addressing key challenges in adult learning. The main structural challenge remains that the participation rate is far below the EU average (in 2022, 23.3% of adults aged between 25 and 64 vs 39.5% in the EU), particularly among low-skilled people, elderly, people in rural areas and the long-term unemployed, with some improvement observed when using the indicator for participation in the last 4 weeks. Since the adoption of the Adult Education Act in 2021, Croatia has launched several major reforms to improve participation in adult learning. The central instrument is the national voucher scheme, launched in 2022, which gives adults free access to upskilling or reskilling through accredited training programmes and has high potential and the ambition to reverse the negative adult learning trend. It is also a solid basis for implementing individual learning accounts (ILAs). Still, further efforts are needed to reach the national 2030 target of at least 55% of all adults participating in training every year. Croatia is also improving the quality and labour market relevance of adult education and training. Adult learning qualifications are now aligned with labour market needs through the Croatian Qualifications Framework (CROQF). In 2024, an ESF+ project on skills mapping for the green and digital transitions also produced a tool for developing programmes in these two priority areas, while additional mapping for STEP related skills was done under Talent Booster Mechanism and its results will be used as a basis for measures supported by ERDF. The country has recently developed a methodology for recognising prior learning and guidelines for the development of micro-credentials (Cedefop & ReferNet, 2025d). The remaining challenge is that employers are not sufficiently involved in fostering skills development programmes in the workplace. Fragmentation of governance also hinders progress. However, new ESF+ supported projects present an opportunity to address these issues.

Recent policy developments show substantial progress in system-level reforms and strong alignment with EU priorities, includingthe Union of Skills. The voucher scheme has some similarities with the EU’s concept of ILAs, while the development of micro-credentials and tools for green and digital skills are consistent with EU priorities. Croatia’s policy direction reflects many of the Union’s strategic objectives, including inclusive access, flexible learning pathways and labour market relevance. While policy initiatives are promising, their results will need to be monitored and evaluated closely to ensure they are effective. Key issues to monitor include improving employer involvement, expanding access for disadvantaged groups, developing robust skills intelligence mechanisms and ensuring the sustainability of reforms beyond EU funding cycles. It is also essential for the reforms carried out to be better coordinated across ministries and monitored more closely, to fully realise the potential of the Union of Skills framework in Croatia.