Country report

1. STEM education

Enrolment in STEM-related fields is high in VET but low in higher education, in a context of skills shortages in high-level occupations. In 2023, more than half (50.2%) of Bulgarian students in medium-level VET were enrolled in STEM specialisations, surpassing the EU average of 36.3% and even the proposed EU-level target of 45% by 2030. In addition, female participation among medium-level VET students in STEM fields (27.4%) was also above the EU average (15.4%) and the proposed target of 25% by 2030. By contrast, only 23.7% of Bulgarian higher education students were enrolled in a university programme linked to STEM, below the EU average (26.9%) and the proposed target of 32% by 2030. Despite the higher education offer prioritising STEM fields, and extensive policy efforts over the past decade to increase their attractiveness and relevance (see Section 5), take-up remains rather low, in part due to the low level of basic skills among young people. Furthermore, a key challenge for STEM education is the shortage of qualified teachers, including in VET, worsened by the fact that a significant proportion of teachers are approaching retirement (see Sections 3 and 4). 31.5% of STEM university students were women (EU: 32.2%), which is significantly below the proposed target of 40%. Among doctoral students in Bulgaria, 3.7% were pursuing a degree in ICT, compared to the EU average of 3.8% and the proposed target of 5%. The share of women among doctoral candidates pursuing a degree in ICT (32.4%) was close to the proposed EU-level target of 33% and above the EU average (24.3%). While researchers and engineers feature among the most requested occupations (European Commission, 2025a), overall, labour shortages are exacerbated by a declining number of higher education students (see Section 5).

Significant EU and national investments are underway to improve the acquisition of STEM competences. Complementing the national programme ‘Construction of school STEM environment’, the National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP) is financing the set-up of STEM laboratories in about 2000 schools, as well as the set-up of a national STEM centre and training facilities for the three regional centres. The centres will coordinate teacher training, educational resources and students’ activities in STEM. Furthermore, with support from the NRRP and the European Social Fund Plus (ESF+), Bulgaria has established 24 Centres of VET Excellence to promote skills development in STEM areas relevant to the green and digital transitions. In parallel, the ESF+ is funding training for nearly 40 000 teachers in STEM subjects and policy efforts are continuing in higher education (see Section 5).

2. Early childhood education and care

The rate of participation in early childhood education and care (ECEC) for children over the age of 3 jumped markedly following a retrospective revision of Bulgaria’s population data. The most recent aggregated EU-level data shows that in 2023, enrolment for children aged from 3 to the starting age of compulsory primary education was 88.8% (EU: 94.6%). This represents a small increase compared to the previous year (87.8%), but a major one compared to the rate of 80.4% calculated before the retrospective statistical revision triggered by the 2021 census. A certain increase over the past decade is visible in the new enrolment data (see Figure 1). However, in the context of the significant measures taken to increase participation, including lowering the age of compulsory education to 4 and eliminating care-related kindergarten fees, the revised figures confirm that challenges for participation remain. In particular, there are still issues to be addressed: a lack of places in large urban areas, with the locations of kindergartens not corresponding to where families with young children live (OECD, 2025) and lower participation of children from disadvantaged backgrounds. While only 68% of Roma children participated in ECEC in 2024, this share has increased compared to 2021 (58%) (Fundamental Rights Agency, 2025). At the same time, participation in formal childcare for children under the age of 3 is improving (21.2% compared to 17.4% in 2023). However, it remains significantly below the EU average (39.3%) and the national Barcelona target of 30% by 2030, in part due to lack of facilities and parental leave arrangements.

With EU support Bulgaria is continuing efforts to improve quality and address outstanding challenges in ECEC. Although a quality framework for ECEC services from birth to age 6 has recently been established, there is still no holistic approach to quality and inclusivity, and ECEC services are insufficient. This results in regional disparities in access and learning (European Commission, 2024a). Other outstanding challenges stem from the diversity of service providers, a lack of uniformity in the regulatory processes, a fragmented monitoring and evaluation system and inconsistent data collection efforts (ibid.). A multi-country project between Bulgaria and Portugal, facilitated by the EU’s Technical Support Instrument, is helping Bulgaria implement the national quality framework. In practice, the aim is to adopt a concept for a comprehensive monitoring and evaluation system, allow Bulgaria to learn from other European countries, develop a communication strategy for raising awareness on the importance of ECEC and make recommendations.

3. School education and basic skills

A widespread lack of basic skills among young people remains a key challenge. The 2022 OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) (OECD, 2023a) showed that about half of Bulgaria’s 15-year-olds do not have the basic skills to fully participate in society and succeed on the labour market. 53.6% underperformed in mathematics (EU: 29.5%), 52.9% in reading (26.2%) and 48% in science (24.2%). At the same time, only 3.1% of students were top performers in mathematics (EU: 7.9%), 2.2% in reading (EU: 6.5%) and 1.4% in science (EU: 6.9%) (European Commission, 2024b). Furthermore, only 52.1% of 16-19-year-olds have at least basic or above-basic digital skills (EU: 66.5% in 2023 (DESI)). These digital skills comprise aspects that are vital to navigate today’s increasingly complex and technological world, such as information and data literacy, communication and collaboration, digital content creation, safety, and problem solving. Given the many students lacking basic skills, in 2025, the Council of the EU called on Bulgaria to ‘strengthen competence-based teaching and learning, improve teaching quality with initial, continuous and needs-based teacher training’ and ‘improve the quality, labour market relevance and inclusiveness of education and training, including for Roma and other disadvantaged groups’ (Council of the EU, 2025). The 2025 amendment to the Bulgarian NRRP explicitly includes an investment in digital skills by setting up a network of digital clubs and providing free training.

Socio-economic factors remain a strong predictor of educational performance and achievement in basic skills. In 2022, only 2.5% of students from disadvantaged backgrounds obtained a good result in PISA (level 4) in at least one of the tested domains (EU: 16.3%). This was achieved by 33.4% of their advantaged peers (EU: 59.0%; European Commission, 2025b). Furthermore, results in national evaluations show a strong social segregation in the system (Ministry of Education and Science, 2022), while tracking at the end of seventh grade widens socio-economic disparities as students advance through the school system (OECD, 2025). Whereas disadvantaged students are twice as likely to be enrolled in VET, the wide performance gap in PISA outcomes between students in general education and VET (i.e. 68 score points) reflects not only lower academic achievement but also issues with the curriculum and quality in VET schools (ibid.). A large gap in achievement is also visible for students in schools outside Sofia and urban centres (91 score points), which are typically small schools, struggling to attract and retain quality teachers. With over half of schools enrolling fewer than 200 children, school and class sizes suggest that further optimisation of the school network is needed (OECD, 2025).

The effectiveness of the 2016 curricular reform was impacted by a number of factors. The competence-based school curriculum, which was rolled out starting from 2016, was perceived as still heavily content-oriented (European Commission, 2025a) and overly prescriptive (Guthrie et al., 2022). It was impacted by several factors, including lack of guidance and support for teachers, insufficient teacher training, inconsistent implementation approaches across regions and the non-alignment of assessment practices (OECD, 2023b). Increasing the rather low number of instructional hours in Bulgaria (i.e. 507 in primary, EU: 738; and 736 in lower secondary, EU: 876), combined with student-centred teaching strategies and additional extracurricular and enrichment activities, could help improve learning outcomes (OECD, 2025).

Bulgaria aims to revise the school curriculum, including with a view to improving basic skills. The proposed concept (Ministry of Education and Science, 2025) identifies 10 principles for this revision, placing emphasis on acquiring competences, additional opportunities to overcome educational difficulties, and fostering excellence. It also stresses interdisciplinary aspects, socio-emotional skills, values and the importance of education for health. Other principles include simplification, higher literacy over specialisation and strengthening school autonomy. More time is envisaged for exercises and the proposals specifically discuss teaching methods that motivate students to learn, providing support to teachers, including for formative and summative assessment, and aligning internal and external assessment with the new curriculum. The EU’s Technical Support Instrument supports Bulgaria in these efforts.

With efforts to fight early school leaving showing results, there is a need to refocus policy efforts on improving educational outcomes. In 2024, the share of 18-24-year-olds leaving education and training early fell to 8.2%, compared to 13.9% in 2019. The rate is below the EU average of 9.4% and the EU-level target of 9% by 2030. Although early school leaving is still high in rural areas (17.7% compared to 3.4% in cities) and for the Roma (Fundamental Rights Agency, 2025), the positive trend recorded can be largely attributed to sustained policy efforts to reintegrate out-of-school children and reducing drop-out through remedial education and social support measures, in part co-financed by EU funds. Nevertheless, considering that basic skills are worsening, there is a need to evaluate the effectiveness of the remedial education provided and expand support to all those in need (European Commission, 2025a). Furthermore, irregular participation patterns persist, with 56% of students in the PISA test reporting lateness and 12% long-term absenteeism (OECD, 2025). Among the reasons for absenteeism, students cited boredom (39%), transportation issues (26%), family responsibilities (29%) and the need to work and contribute financially (24%) (OECD, 2025).

Substantial efforts were made to raise the attractiveness of the teaching profession and overcome challenges in the sector, but areas of improvement remain. In 2023, 31.4% of schoolteachers (ISCED 1-3) were at least 55 years old (EU average 25.1%). Amidst these ageing trends, Bulgaria took measures to prevent teacher shortages, including significantly increasing teacher salaries, offering scholarships and eliminating fees for university programmes preparing future teachers. Nevertheless, shortages exist, especially for primary school teachers and subject teachers in STEM. Furthermore, recruitment and retention are a particular challenge in rural and disadvantaged schools, including VET schools (OECD, 2025). Previous reports (World Bank, 2020) have shown that initial teacher education programmes generally do not attract high-performing upper secondary graduates, their emphasis on pedagogy and practical learning is limited and they still focus heavily on traditional teaching methods and subject knowledge. Combined with insufficient mentoring for novice teachers, these challenges result in many graduates not entering the profession and a high drop-out rate among novice teachers. In addition, continuous professional development is not based on a robust assessment of teachers’ training needs, is fragmented and lacks quality control (OECD, 2023b), while school-based learning remains limited (OECD, 2025).

There is scope to improve civic competences. In the 2022 International Civic and Citizenship Education Study (Schulz et al., 2023), 17.7% of Bulgarian eighth graders showed good proficiency in civic skills (level B or higher), which is significantly below the average for the EU countries surveyed (44.5%). This means that they have only basic civic competences and may benefit from additional instruction to deepen their understanding of complex civic issues and develop more nuanced perspectives on citizenship. Students with higher levels of civic knowledge tend to report more positive civic attitudes and greater engagement. These attitudes include endorsing equal rights and being willing to participate electorally (Schulz et al., 2023).

4. Vocational education and training

Despite high enrolment in medium-level VET, the labour market relevance and quality of VET programmes remain low. VET enrolment is above the EU average (56.1%, EU: 52.4% in 2023), in part due to the higher number of available places early tracking and the territorial spread of VET schools. However, nearly half of VET students attend small rural schools lacking specialised staff and modern equipment (OECD, 2025). As a result, the employment rate of VET graduates (66.2% in 2024) is significantly below the EU average (80%). In some regions, up to two thirds may not find work in their field of specialisation, pointing to a misalignment with regional economic needs. The quality gap is further reflected in PISA 2022 results for mathematics, which show a 68-point learning gap between VET and general education students (21 points after adjusting for socio-economic status). Disadvantaged students are disproportionately represented in VET, exacerbating these disparities.

Bulgaria is making efforts to modernise VET, but effective and timely implementation is key. The Strategic Framework for Education and Training 2021-2030 prioritises VET, with reforms supported by both EU and national funding. Under the Recovery and Resilience Facility (RRF), amendments to the VET Act in 2024 led to an updated list of VET professions and new programmes focused on green and digital skills. New state educational standards and national examination programmes are also being introduced, with support from the ESF+. The RRF has invested EUR 48 million in equipping 24 schools to become Centres of Excellence in VET, an effort complemented by the ESF+ Programme Education, under the operation ‘Support to Centres of Excellence in VET’. Overall, the ESF+ programme has committed over EUR 117 million for VET and dual VET modernisation and has selected 417 schools to adopt modernised curricula and apprenticeships. The ‘Modernisation of VET’ operation (EUR 35.7 million) has established 20 sectoral skills councils, which have been involved in designing the new VET programmes.

Dual VET remains unpopular among students and employers, with most of VET education taking place entirely at school. In 2023, 7.8% of VET students were enrolled in dual training, which is more than three times the percentage enrolled in 2018. Within the framework of the ‘Strategic vision for the development of dual VET 2030’, Bulgaria has recently adopted a new ordinance on VET, improving the legal framework on work-based learning. In parallel, the ESF+ is supporting 159 schools in introducing dual training, through improved teacher training, enhanced real-work practices and targeted information campaigns.

5. Tertiary education

Tertiary educational attainment jumped markedly in 2024 but remains low in comparison with the EU average. In 2024, 40.5% of Bulgarians aged 25-34 had a tertiary education degree, compared to 31.8% in 2015. This significant increase brings Bulgaria closer to the EU average of 44.1% and the EU-level target of 45% by 2030. Nevertheless, the gender gap in attainment remains substantial with 49.2% of women aged 25-34 holding a tertiary degree (EU: 49.8%), compared to only 32.2% of men (EU: 38.6%). A gender gap is also visible across study choices, with women underrepresented in STEM fields (see Section 1).

Improving the participation of disadvantaged students could help mitigate skills shortages. Despite an increase in student numbers in the 2024/2025 academic year (6.8% more students compared to the year before), falling trends in enrolment are visible in the longer term. From 2020/2021 to 2024/2025, student numbers dropped by 8.0%, while the enrolment rate in the age group most likely to be in higher education (i.e. 19-23) went down from 48.7% to 43.4%. A 2024 survey shows that only 2% of higher education students surveyed came from families in which the parents have only primary or lower education and only around 37% in which neither parent has higher than secondary education, with wide differences by social backgrounds across study fields (BURS, 2024b). Inequalities generated in ECEC, schooling, families and communities limit the capacity of tertiary education to develop equitable learning opportunities. However, reviewing the current financial assistance for disadvantaged students, strengthening incentives for tertiary institutions to focus on equity, as well as reducing barriers to enrolment and expanding targeted interventions for vulnerable groups may help (ibid.).

Improving quality may further increase student numbers. The share of upper secondary Bulgarian graduates leaving the country to get their degree remains high (10.2% in 2023). This is partially due to the perception that the quality of higher education lags behind other EU countries (Ministry of Education and Science, 2021). Furthermore, Bulgaria’s higher education system is not highly attractive to international students, with the exception of medical, dental and pharmacy programmes (OECD, 2025). In 2024, 15 737 foreigners came to Bulgaria to study, making up 8.6% of the student population (BURS, 2024a).

Policy efforts have been focusing on aligning tertiary education with labour market needs, but areas of improvement remain. Measures covered the funding mechanism, prioritising study programmes in fields with strong labour market demand, including STEM, and improving the regional balance in provision by developing the Higher Education Map, a reform adopted in 2021 under the NRRP. The ERDF has modernised numerous universities, enhancing higher education access and attractiveness. A mechanism for curricular revision in universities was introduced and EU-funded projects have been supporting the development of joint university programmes and collaboration with the business sector. The most recent ESF+ operation (EUR 102.2 million) aims to develop competence-based learning, strengthen the interdisciplinary approach, and support cooperation and internationalisation in higher education. While improvements are visible, for example in the share of graduates working in positions requiring higher education, tertiary education is not yet sufficiently diversified to meet the needs of learners and the economy. It could benefit from further expanding collaboration among institutions to develop and deliver joint programmes, improving data collection, and consolidating the network in response to demographic trends (OECD, 2025). Further policies to promote instructional quality, and career policies to incentivise high-quality teaching and curriculum innovation could also be considered (ibid.).

6. Adult skills and learning

Adult participation in learning and skills development faces significant challenges, negatively impacting the competitiveness and adaptability of the workforce to labour market changes. In 2022, adult participation in learning (excluding on-the-job training) stood at only 9.5%, significantly below the EU average of 39.5% and exhibited a negative trend (decreasing from 11.8% in 2016). Those in employment struggle to access training, with only 12.2% being involved in education or training, compared to the EU average of 44.7%. Reaching Bulgaria’s 2030 target of 35.4% participation of all adults appears increasingly challenging under current trajectories. The data for adult participation in learning in the last four weeks also shows reasons for concern as Bulgaria’s figures were consistently much lower than the EU average. Despite an increase of 0.4 percentage points in 2024, participation stood at only 1.8%, while the EU average reached a record high of 13.5%.

The workforce is inadequately prepared to respond to the needs of employers, in particular the demand for workers with digital and green skills. The twin transition is expected to significantly impact Bulgaria due to its high dependence on coal in the energy sector and the overall high energy intensity of the economy. However, a 2022 Eurobarometer showed that only 35% of Bulgarians believed they had the necessary skills for the green transition, well below the EU average (54%). And in 2023, only 35.5% of the population possessed at least basic digital skills, also well below the EU average of 55.6% (DESI). At the same time, employers express concerns about the availability of skilled workers, with 58% of small and medium-sized enterprises citing skills shortages as the most serious problem they face, and over 40% of employers reporting that applicants do not meet the skills requirements.

Bulgaria is introducing measures to provide training opportunities, but their implementation is lagging behind. Several operations focused on training, upskilling and reskilling, financed by the RRF and ESF+ under Bulgaria’s Human Resources Development Programme (HRDP), are already in place. They target different groups, such as the inactive, the unemployed, persons with disabilities, those in employment, workers in the coal and energy industry directly affected by the green transition, etc. New measures, such as a pilot project for individual learning accounts under the ESF+, and efforts to identify the reasons for the low levels of adult participation in learning are being launched in 2025. However, some activities are lagging behind or were scaled down, particularly the training for digital skills supported by the RRF, due to accumulated delays and insufficient interest among the target groups.