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Education and Training Monitor 2024

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Comparative report

Chapter 4. Vocational education and training

4.1. Work-based learning, employability, and learning mobility

EU-level 2025 target: ‘At least 60% of recent VET graduates should have experienced work-based learning as part of their VET programme by 2025.’

EU-level 2025 target(213): ‘The share of employed VET graduates should be at least 82% by 2025.’

EU-level 2030 target(214): ‘In VET, the share of vocational learners who do part of their studies abroad (learning mobility) should be at least 12% by 2030.’

Vocational education and training (VET) covers learning across a broad range of settings, including school-based learning or work-based training, at different levels of qualification(215). Across the EU, more than 10 million students take part in initial VET(216), at upper secondary (8.9 million) or post-secondary non-tertiary level (1.4 million). This means that over half (52.4%) of learners at a medium level of education(217) are in vocational programmes. Two thirds (68.5%) of VET learners at medium level are in programmes that give direct access to tertiary education. There are 1.4 million learners(218) in short-cycle tertiary education with a vocational orientation and, in addition, several EU countries offer vocational programmes at bachelor’s and master’s levels(219).

Continuing VET mostly takes place outside the formal education system, typically in a work-based context. In 2022, nearly four out of ten (37.1%) working-age adults across the EU took part in (non-formal) job-related education and training(220). Around two thirds of companies across the EU provide continuing VET to (some of) their staff (67.4% in 2020), with larger companies being more likely than smaller ones to do so(221). Chapter 6 has more detailed information on participation in adult learning.

This section looks at work-based learning, employability, and learning mobility in VET. Firstly, work-based learning in VET helps to ensure its labour market relevance. It motivates pupils and students who are keen to gain practical experience and enables smooth transitions from school to work(222). The EU has set a target for at least 60% of recent medium-level VET graduates to have experienced work-based learning as part of their VET programme by 2025. At 64.5% in 2023, this target has been reached(223).

Figure 21. Work-based learning ranges from less than 10% to nearly 100% of recent VET graduates
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There is, however, a lot of variation across EU countries (Figure 21). Work-based learning in VET is almost universal in some countries (Spain, Austria, the Netherlands, and Germany), but in others it is very much the exception (Romania and Czechia). Across the EU, work-based learning is slightly less common among female (63.9%) than among male (64.9%) VET graduates. Work-based learning is most common in VET programmes in health (74.3%) or business, administration, and law (69.3%). It is least common in VET programmes linked to ICT (53.8%) and the humanities (44.5%).

Secondly, recent VET graduates generally have good employment prospects. In 2023, 81.0% of young medium-level graduates who had completed their VET programme were in employment, putting the 2025 EU-level target of at least 82% within reach(224). The latest data show a marked increase since 2022 (+1.2 percentage points), and the highest rate on record since 2014. At EU level, male graduates’ employment rate is 1.7 percentage points higher than female graduates’ employment rate. This gap has gradually narrowed in recent years, from 5.6 percentage points in 2019(225).

Country differences in the employment of recent VET graduates are substantial. Fewer than two out of three graduates are in employment in Italy, Spain, and Romania. In Malta, the Netherlands, Germany, and Denmark, the employment rate is above 90%.

As Figure 22 shows, there are countries that do well on both work-based learning and employment rates of recent graduates (such as Germany, the Netherlands, and Austria). Countries that perform poorly on both counts include Romania and Italy. The overall functioning of national labour markets is a factor, both in providing opportunities for work-based learning and the school-to-work transition of VET graduates. Still, there are several outliers: Spain’s VET graduates had a lot of work-based learning, but the country has one of the lowest employment rates for VET graduates. The opposite is the case in Czechia and Hungary.

Figure 22. Work-based learning and employability of VET graduates vary a lot across EU countries
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Individually, recent VET graduates in the EU who experienced work-based learning have higher employment rates (84.8% in 2023) than those who did not (71.5%). The association between work-based learning and employment is particularly strong for the youngest VET graduates. Among graduates with work-based learning experience, employment rates exceed 80% from age 21 upwards. Graduates without any work-based learning experience reach this mark by age 24. This suggests that work-based learning expedites labour matching. Most employers give initial VET learners work-based learning opportunities, as a way of training them as future employees according to the employers’ needs (89.8% of companies), and to select the best candidates for future employment (73.6%)(226).

Recent VET graduates in the EU who were exposed to work-based learning have higher employment rates (84.8%) than those who did not (71.5%).

Thirdly, the 2024 Council Recommendation ‘Europe on the Move’ (see also Section 5.2) set a new target for the mobility of VET learners, including apprentices, to reach 12% by 2030(227). VET learners’ mobility had steadily increased between 2014 and 2020, before a major interruption due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Demand for student mobility then picked up again strongly in 2022 and 2023.

The new 2030 EU-level target is measured as the share of learners and apprentices graduated from medium-level (upper secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary) VET programmes, who had a mobility period abroad during their studies. It includes flexible mobility opportunities under Erasmus+, such as short-term mobility, group mobility, blended mobility, and mobility linked to participation in skills competitions. The latest estimates, for 2022, suggest that 5.1% of medium-level VET learners took part in such mobility experiences(228).

4.2. VET for sustainability

VET promotes skills for the green transition and sustainability, by developing both technical abilities and transversal competences(229). In a circular economy, for instance, there is a growing need for workers who can not only renew equipment (technical skills), but also work together with people involved in different stages of a product’s lifecycle (transversal skills)(230).

Many occupations and sectors that are crucial for the green transition, such as construction, waste management, and energy, rely on skills acquired through medium-level initial VET. Given the labour and skills shortages in these sectors(231), and the underrepresentation of women, campaigns are being launched to attract more women to the relevant VET programmes(232). Continuing VET, in turn, plays a key role in upskilling and reskilling employees, teaching them how to apply new processes or technologies to reduce waste, save energy, and limit a company’s carbon footprint(233).

EU countries are addressing the green transition in their VET systems(234). Updating VET curricula and programmes is crucial for sustainability in VET. Doing so takes various forms. Firstly, countries are introducing new programmes for emerging occupations (such as installers of photovoltaic energy systems(235)). Secondly, existing curricula and programmes are being updated to bring them in line with new technological or regulatory standards (for example in the automotive sector(236) or food industry(237)). Thirdly, several countries have developed common core parts of VET curricula on sustainability, as a module in all VET programmes(238), or by adding content under common headings (such as reducing pollution), adapted to the technical subject matter in question(239). Several countries are investing in integrating the green transition into continuing VET(240), or developing green programmes at higher VET levels(241).

Making the VET sector itself more sustainable requires changes to infrastructure(242). Chapter 1 focused on sustainable learning environments, particularly pertinent when it comes to VET. Upgrading and modernising laboratories and training centres gives VET learners an opportunity to work with state-of-the-art equipment to promote sustainable development hands-on(243). Learning environments are being made more sustainable by improving the energy efficiency of buildings or generating renewable energy on-site. Several VET schools have involved their learners in these processes, to help them gain practical experience(244).

As emphasised in Chapter 1, building teacher capacity is crucial for promoting sustainability. A specificity of VET is the role of trainers, notably those in companies(245). Several countries have taken steps to include sustainability in teachers’ initial and continuing professional development(246). International teaching and training staff mobility can support such efforts(247).

Finally, promoting sustainability in VET requires skills intelligence on greening trends and evolving labour market needs. This involves state-of-the-art skills anticipation tools (such as forecasts, foresight, and big data) and close cooperation with people who work in this area (such as social partners and public employment services)(248). EU countries are using the green transition as an opportunity to promote VET excellence, by bringing together a wide range of local and regional partners, including upper secondary and tertiary VET providers, employers, research centres, and social partners, and helping them co-create ‘skills ecosystems’(249).

Main takeaway

At EU level, the share of work-based learning in VET (64.5% in 2023) exceeds the 2025 EU-level target of at least 60%. The employment rate of recent VET graduates (81.0%) is the highest on record since 2014, putting the EU on track to reach the target of 82% by 2025. Countries that do well on both work-based learning and employability include Germany, the Netherlands, and Austria. Countries that perform poorly on both counts include Romania and Italy. On average, recent VET graduates who experienced work-based learning have higher employment rates (84.8%) than those who did not (71.5%). The latest estimates suggest that 5.1% of medium-level VET learners had a mobility experience abroad, far below the 2030 EU-level target of at least 12%. As for learning for sustainability, EU countries are reforming their VET systems, with new or updated curricula, greener infrastructure, and training for teachers and trainers.

Notes

  • 213.See the 2020 Council Recommendation on vocational education and training (VET) for sustainable competitiveness, social fairness and resilience.

  • 214.See the 2024 Council Recommendation ‘Europe on the Move’.

  • 215.See the 2020 Council Recommendation on vocational education and training (VET) for sustainable competitiveness, social fairness and resilience.

  • 216.Initial VET typically takes place in a school-based environment, complemented by practical experience in training centres or companies.

  • 217.Medium level education is the combination of upper secondary education and post-secondary non-tertiary education. This is the reference category for the indicators on work-based learning, employability, and learning mobility.

  • 218.The gender balance in initial VET differs across educational levels. There are more male students in upper secondary education (58.2%), but a majority of female students (57.8%) in post-secondary non-tertiary education. In short-cycle tertiary education with a vocational orientation, there is near gender parity (50.9% male and 49.1% female students). Male students in initial VET mainly study ‘engineering, manufacturing and construction’ (44.5% of male students). Female students mainly study ‘health and welfare’ (25.8% of female learners), services (22.0%), and business, administration, and law (21.2%). Monitor Toolbox

  • 219.There is currently no internationally agreed definition of programme orientation at these levels of education. See a 2022 OECD report on higher vocational and professional tertiary education systems.

  • 220.Monitor Toolbox The data from the Adult Education Survey refer to the share of people aged 18 to 64 who take part in job-related non-formal education and training. The data in Chapter 6 refer to adults aged 25 to 64.

  • 221.Monitor Toolbox The data from the Continuing Vocational Training Survey refer to training measures or activities that have as their primary objectives the acquisition of new competences or the development and improvement of existing ones and must be financed at least partly by companies, for their staff. The survey covers companies in EU countries with 10 or more people employed. For more details on company size and sector, see the 2023 Education and Training Monitor’s comparative report.

  • 222.See a 2021 Cedefop Research Paper on the role of work-based learning in VET and tertiary education.

  • 223.Work-based learning in this context refers to experience gained at a workplace (besides or in addition to school-based learning or practical exercises at a training centre). The relevant work experience is part of the curriculum of the formal programme leading to the VET qualification (unlike most traineeships). Within these parameters, work-based learning varies a lot. Work experience can take place in different sectors and types of workplaces (companies, government institutions, or non-profit organisations), with varying duration (from 1 month to 1 year or longer). Learners may work under different contractual statuses (as dual learners with an employment contract, for example, or as apprentices) and conditions (paid or unpaid work experience). The indicator includes all VET graduates who left the VET programme 0-3 years ago, including graduates who are still in education and training.

  • 224.This indicator captures the employment rates of 20-34-year-olds no longer in education and training, and who graduated 1-3 years previously from VET at upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary level. Monitor Toolbox

  • 225.The gender gap was 4.5 percentage points in 2020, 4.2 in 2021, and 3.4 in 2022. Monitor Toolbox

  • 226.Monitor Toolbox

  • 227.The 2030 EU-level target builds on the 2025 EU-level target on learning mobility in VET that was introduced in the 2020 Council Recommendation on VET. The 2025 target stated that 8% of VET learners should have a learning mobility experience lasting a minimum of 10 days abroad. The ambition to reach the learning mobility targets has been accompanied by more resources for VET mobility in the 2021-2027 Erasmus+ programme.

  • 228.This is a June 2024 European Commission estimate based on data from the Erasmus+ Dashboard and Eurostat (UOE administrative data collection). The estimate refers to the number of medium-level VET learners with mobility experiences abroad that started in 2022, reported by project beneficiaries and in the Erasmus+ Dashboard, expressed as a share of medium-level VET graduates in the same year using the UOE administrative data collection. Due to the transition between the old and new Erasmus programmes, the 2022 estimate is only available at EU level and includes projections based on historical data.

  • 229. The Inter-Agency Working Group on Work-Based Learning defined skills for the green transition as including skills and competences but also knowledge, abilities, values, and attitudes needed to live, work and act in resource-efficient and sustainable economies and societies.

  • 230.See a 2023 Cedefop policy brief on VET and skills development as springboards for the circular economy.

  • 231.See a 2023 European Commission report on employment and social developments in Europe; a 2022 EURES report on labour shortages and surpluses; and a 2022 Cedefop briefing note.

  • 232.See a 2023 European Commission report on gender equality in the EU.

  • 233.See a 2023 Cedefop briefing note on key professions for the green transition.

  • 234.This is in line with the 2020 Council Recommendation on VET and the 2020 Osnabrück Declaration. A 2023 Cedefop briefing note reviews the national implementation plans submitted in this context. The EEA strategic framework working group on vocational education and the green transition enables technical exchanges on greening VET (see, for instance, the 2023 compendium and 2024 compendium of inspiring practices). The ReferNet network of institutions created by Cedefop provides updates on recent developments in VET, including in the area of the green transition.

  • 235.For instance, in Romania (2024 compendium of inspiring practices).

  • 236.For instance, in the Flemish community of Belgium where augmented reality is being used in VET on electric vehicles, hybrid vehicles, and autonomous driving systems (2024 compendium of inspiring practices).

  • 237.For instance, the development of a national green culinary education standard in Denmark (2024 compendium of inspiring practices).

  • 238.In Greece, the nation-wide apprenticeship class on green skills in the post-secondary year of initial VET contains a module on general knowledge, as well as a more specific part for each speciality (2024 compendium of inspiring practices).

  • 239.In Germany, an updated nationwide standard for all trainees in the dual system on ‘environmental protection and sustainability’ is in force since 2021. Slovenia has included a technical module on ‘sustainable development’ in several upper secondary VET programmes (2023 compendium of inspiring practices).

  • 240.In Denmark, earmarked funding was released for projects on greening continuing VET and upskilling, developing, and piloting courses on climate adaptation and the green transition, and on teacher training in specific sectors. See the 2024 Education and Training Monitor’s country report for Denmark.

  • 241.For example, the Italian reform of Higher Technological Institutions and Sweden’s Yrkeshögskolan scheme (including a higher VET programme for solar energy managers).

  • 242.Examples of actions to make VET institutions sustainable and green can be found in Cedefop’s Timeline of VET policies in Europe.

  • 243.Examples include Bulduri horticultural school in Latvia and Neobuild in Luxembourg.

  • 244.For example, the Green School Energy project in Austria (2024 compendium of inspiring practices) and the Riga State Technical School in Latvia (2023 compendium of inspiring practices).

  • 245.For instance, in Germany, the national initiative ‘VET for Sustainable Development’ to train in-company trainers (2023 compendium of inspiring practices).

  • 246.See a 2022 Cedefop research paper on teachers and trainers in a changing world. In Austria, a new course for ‘Sustainability Coordinator at Schools’ was developed (2024 compendium of inspiring practices).

  • 247.An example is the Itineris+ project under Erasmus+, where trainers from Belgium learned about practices in sustainable construction during a site visit in Finland (2023 compendium of inspiring practices).

  • 248.See a 2024 Cedefop policy brief on skills anticipation trends, opportunities, and challenges.

  • 249.For instance, France has established a national network of Centres of Vocational Excellence focused on the energy transition and eco-industry (2023 compendium of inspiring practices). Since 2020, Ireland has developed its National Network of Nearly Zero Energy Buildings (NZEB) and Retrofit Centres of Excellence (2024 compendium of inspiring practices). At EU level, the Centres of Vocational Excellence initiative supports transnational collaborative networks aimed at driving innovation and excellence in VET. With EU support, centres have been set up that promote teaching for sustainable development and green innovation in VET. Sectoral centres focus on sustainable and renewable energy, ecological restoration, or promote sustainability in sectors including agrifood, hospitality, construction, fashion, textiles, manufacturing, and mobility.