Education and Training Monitor 2024

1. Learning for sustainability

Spain has fully integrated the content and concepts of learning for sustainability¹. As a result of the government’s Declaration on Climate and Environmental Emergency²in 2020, Spain adopted the Environmental Education Action Plan for Sustainability (2021-2025)³(PAEAS), coordinated by the central government together with the autonomous communities, municipalities and other stakeholders. The action plan includes 61 actions grouped into six areas and comprises annual work plans⁴. The National Centre for Environmental Education is responsible for approving, monitoring and evaluating the action plan. According to the intermediate report on the action plan⁵, the organisation promoting the action plan developed a total of 98 actions in 2021-2023. An overview table charts progress by activity^6,7.

Learning for sustainability is well embedded in the school curricula and in university studies. The Organic Law of Education 2/2006 (amended in 2020)⁸ incorporates education for sustainable development in all ISCED 0-3 curricula⁹in a cross-cutting manner and largely in line with GreenComp, the European sustainability competence framework¹⁰. Autonomous communities design their own curricula¹¹in compliance with the national curriculum. Monitoring mechanisms and evaluation practices related to learning for sustainability are in place both internally in schools and externally. Internally, schools conduct evaluations of their annual general programming, which includes educational plans related to sustainability. Additionally, the achievement of key competences, including those related to sustainability, are evaluated in the 6th year of primary education and the 4th year of compulsory secondary education. Externally, the school inspection office supervises how schools implement learning for sustainability. An evaluation of the implementation of learning for sustainability is envisaged after full implementation of the new curricula by 2023/2024. Organic Law 2/2023 of the University System¹²also refers to the promotion of sustainability in all activities. The university admissions exam covers competences aligned with sustainability concepts.

Spain is integrating sustainability into the vocational education and training (VET) curricula to support the green transition. With the regulatory development of Organic Law 3/2022, the Ministry of Education, Vocational Training and Sports (MEFD) introduced a module of sustainability into all VET diploma programmes, applied to the relevant productive system. This module aims to develop basic knowledge and skills in the green economy, sustainability and environmental impact. The Spanish National Qualifications Institute, which regulates qualifications, has updated all its curricula according to the principles of a sustainable economy and the relevant environmental regulations. In addition, MEFD has published a full range of new vocational training programmes in the field of sustainability, including courses on maintaining hybrid or electric vehicles.

The Ministry for Education, VET and Sports provides resources to promote sustainability in schools. It has also established the Working Group on Education for Sustainable Development (ESD)¹³. There are various training activities for ESD implementation in education, including webinars¹⁴ and a collection of good educational practices on ESD ¹⁵. Among others, the Ministry offers a guide to educational resources¹⁶ and methodological guidelines for anchoring ESD and global citizenship in the curricula (2022)¹⁷. A recent report provides a comprehensive overview of the state of play of ESD and global citizenship is all autonomous communities (MEFP, 2022)¹⁸, including all relevant legislation, strategies, plans, programmes, actions and projects undertaken. Some examples of the commitment of schools are presented in the context of the Recognition of Sustainable Schools Award ¹⁹and the work carried out by the National Network of Schools towards Sustainability in the Net²⁰.

Spain is among the European countries that define learning objectives related to sustainability for teacher training programmes. In Spain, the regulations for university degrees in education include sustainability-related competences for primary and lower secondary teachers²¹. However, initial teacher training has not been updated since 2007²². Learning for sustainability is an important part of the offer of continuous professional development, with materials, resources and guidelines related to sustainability education available (European Commission / EACEA / Eurydice, 2024). Continuous professional development programmes for teaching staff at ISCED 0-5 levels and at university level offer courses on education for sustainable development. Nevertheless, there is a need to further train teachers in sustainable development and social responsibility (Pegalajar-Palomino et al., 2022). A compendium of the actions to integrate the sustainability concept into the education and training system is available the 2023 PAEAS monitoring report²³. All autonomous communities include training on education for sustainable development and global citizenship in their continuous professional development plans or strategies²⁴.

2. Early childhood education and care

Participation in early childhood education and care (ECEC) continues to grow. ECEC is divided into two cycles: 0-2 years (ISCED 01) and 3-5 years (ISCED 02). In 2022, 96.7% ²⁵of children aged 3+ attended ECEC (well above the EU average of 93.1% and above the EU-level target of 96%). Compared to 2021, there has been a slight increase (0.7 percentage points/pps). Participation in formal ECEC of children below the age of 3 in 2023 (55.8%) was also far above both the EU average (37.5%)²⁶ and the national Barcelona target for 2030 (50.9%). Differences in ECEC participation exist at regional level²⁷ , ranging from 100% (Ceuta) and 99.8% (Extremadura) to 93.2% (Balearic Islands) and Melilla (89.9%) for children aged 3 years or older. In 2022, around one-third of children attended private ECEC institutions, two-thirds of them publicly funded²⁸.

Public ECEC capacities were expanded in the 2023/24 school year. Following the objective established in the new Spanish education law (LOMLOE – Organic Law Amending the Organic Law of Education) on the universalisation of early education for children between the ages of 0 to 2 years, the programme to promote participation in the first cycle of ECEC continues in the 2023/24 school year, with a financial envelope of more than EUR 200 million²⁹. The Recovery and Resilience Facility (RRF) provides EUR 671 million in funding for the creation of 60 000 affordable public ECEC places (with priority for children aged 1-2 year-s in areas of higher risk of poverty or social exclusion and in rural areas). The programme is set to run until the fourth quarter of 2025. Afterwards, funding will continue through European Social Fund Plus (ESF+) co-funding to ensure free participation in ECEC for children coming from disadvantaged backgrounds.

Some Spanish regions decided not to use the RRF support to create new public ECEC facilities. After the regional distribution of new ECEC places was approved³⁰, several autonomous communities (Andalusia, Galicia) decided to return around EUR 134 million received for the creation of new places for the first cycle of ECEC³¹. Part of these funds (EUR 32 million) have been already distributed among 7 autonomous communities, and the other EUR 102 million remain to be reallocated. The funds redistributed must be invested in line in line with the conditions of the programme.

3. School education

The high share of students underachieving in mathematics and the low share of top performers may pose a risk to future productivity and competitiveness. According to the 2022 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) (OECD, 2023; MEFPD, 2023), the share of underachieving 15-year-old students in Spain is below the EU average in all three domains (mathematics: 27.3%; reading: 24.4%; science: 21.3%), but still far from the EU-level target. Compared to 2012, underachievement rates increased in a moderate way. The gap in student performance by socio-economic and/or migrant background, although still relevant, is one of the smallest in the EU. At the same time, the share of top performers is below the EU average. The share of top performing students has not changed since 2012.

Figure 1: Underachievement rates by field, PISA 2012, 2018 and 2022 (%)

Regional differences in PISA results are significant. PISA 2022 shows large differences in regional results, with average score points ranging from 499 to 395 in mathematics, 498 to 404 in reading, and 506 to 410 in science (INEE, 2023). Only one region shows a moderate increase in score points for all three fields in the last decade (Cantabria). Compared to PISA 2012, some of the best performing regions in mathematics (Basque Country, Catalonia and Navarre) showed a significant decrease (over 20 score points), Evidence shows the importance of targeted policies aimed at mitigating territorial inequalities, related to the quality of education and effective equality of opportunities throughout country (López Rupérez and García García, 2023).

The impact of the COVID pandemic affected low-performing students more significantly. The National Institute for Educational Evaluation made a thorough analysis of the drivers behind the PISA results (MEFD, 2023) and did not find in general that the teaching conditions during the pandemic strongly influenced students’ overall performance. Factors like the length of school closures or greater use of ICT do not seem to have strongly affected the PISA 2022 results. Furthermore, there is no significant relationship between teacher availability or the readiness of teachers to low-performing students, who required greater study support and faced more difficulties in adapting to distance learning than their peers.

The rate of early leavers from education and training (ELET) has fallen sharply since 2012 and remained stable in 2023, getting closer to the EU average. The rate in 2023 was 13.7%, around the level of 2022 (EU 9.5%). After 2 years of sharp decline (1.3 pps in 2020 and 2.7 pps in 2021), the rate rose slightly in 2022 (0.6 pps). Gender and regional differences in the rates persist, although the gender gap is decreasing (from 8.4 pps in 2012 to 4.7 pps in 2023). Even though the regional disparities have shrunk, they remain significant. The rates in 6 out of 19 regions are below or close to the EU average. A further 4 regions have rates below the national average, and the remaining 9 have high rates from around 15% to 21%.

Figure 2: Share of early leavers from education and training (18-24 year-olds) and the Spanish regional gap, 2010 and 2023 (%)

Several measures are being implemented to strengthen student outcomes. Supported by the RRF, Spain has adopted a new education law that aims to shift from knowledge-based teaching and learning to a more competence-based approach. In addition, the 2022 curriculum reform for primary and secondary education is being rolled out and will be fully implemented in 2024. Moreover, the programme for orientation, progress and educational enrichment (PROA+) and the creation of personal guidance and family/household units in educational and psychoeducational services aim to reduce the number of early school leavers and improve educational outcomes.

The lack of job stability represents challenges for the teaching profession. In 2022, The proportion of teachers (ISCED 1-3) aged 55+ is below the EU average (20.6%; EU 24.8%)³². National data show that the share of older teachers is higher in secondary education and in VET than in primary education, and it is even higher in higher education. In addition, a significant number of teachers have temporary contracts 22.47% of all teachers, ranging from 4.7% to 43.4% at regional level in 2022-2023 (European Commission, 2023). The government plans to reduce the share of interim teachers to 8% by 2025. Entry requirements to the teaching profession, which have been unchanged for more than 40 years, are being reviewed.

Over 73% of schoolteachers have participated in training to improve their digital skills and 53% have got their skills accredited. In 2021, the Programme for the Improvement of the Digital Competencies of the Education System was approved. The RRF provided EUR 301 million in funding and this was followed by the adoption of a Framework of Reference for the Digital Competencies of Teachers based on DigCompEdu, adapted to the national and regional contexts. Since then, almost 19 000 training courses have been organised, with more than 800 000 teachers taking part. Over 22 000 schools (almost 100% of all private and publicly funded schools) have reviewed or created their School Digital Plan, and more than 500 000 teachers have received accreditations of their digital competencies ³³. These results exceed or are close to the targets set for December 2025.

4. Vocational education and training

The high level of skills polarisation and low employment rates for VET graduates remain a challenge. In 2023, 41.4% of people aged 25-64 had a tertiary qualification (EU 35.1%), while 35.8% had a low-level qualification (ISCED 0-2) (EU 20.2%)³⁴. In 2023, the percentage of people aged 25–64 with an intermediate level of education was the lowest in the EU (22.7%; EU 44.7%). Enrolment in vocational programmes at medium-level education is below the EU average³⁵(40.5%; EU 54.2% in 2022). Despite extensive work-based learning in VET (96.7% of recent graduates had gained such experience in 2023, EU 64.5%)³⁶, employment rates of recent VET graduates are low (65.8% in 2023, EU 81%)³⁷.

Spain is making efforts to improve employability and the labour market relevance of VET courses. In 2023, the government passed Royal Decree 659/2023 to expand dual vocational training, strengthen employability and connect vocational training with the labour market, given that enrolment rates in dual VET courses were low (4.4% in 2021-22). The transition of intermediate and higher VET into dual courses³⁸ may present challenges as the prevalence of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in Spanish business requires boosting SME participation in VET programmes. In 2023, 21 more public centres joined the state network of vocational excellence³⁹.

The digital transformation of VET is high on the government agenda. In 2022, the VET budget increased by 12.2% compared to the previous year, with a special weight of financial transfers to the regions from the RRF in the digital field. In 2023, the Ministry of Education, Vocational Training and Sports launched FP Conecta, a social network for vocational training that enables communication between teachers, students, businesses and public services, facilitating the exchange of information on training and employment. The RRF also supports digitalisation actions such as the Digital Literary for Rural Women (PROFEA) programme⁴⁰, implemented entirely by the State Public Employment Service; 85.57% of women participating in training improved their digital skills and employability.

5. Higher education

Tertiary educational attainment shows a steady increase. In 2023, the rate among people aged 25-34 grew further, reaching 52% (1.8 pps more than in 2022), much higher than the EU average (43%) ⁴¹and the EU-level target (45%). Nevertheless, significant regional differences remain (ranging from 28.1% to 67.6%)⁴². The differences are also significant by birthplace ⁴³and by degree of urbanisation⁴⁴. Compared with 2016, the share of higher education entrants in STEM fields remained stable in 2022 at around 25% and below the EU average of 28.1%⁴⁵; while the share of students in the ICT field increased (6.3% vs 5%), being higher than the EU average (5.1%). The number of STEM graduates from the population aged 20-29 was the same as the EU average in 2022 (23 graduates per 1 000 inhabitants)⁴⁶, and the share of ICT graduates in terms of total graduates was above the EU average (5.2% vs 4.5% in 2022)⁴⁷. However, the number of graduates is insufficient to meet the increased demand on the labour market. Ballestar de las Heras and Sainz González (2023) claim that the solution lies in better information for families and better guidance in secondary schools.

Around one-third of people aged 20-64 with a higher education degree worked in 2023 in low-skilled jobs. Their share is with 35.8% above the EU average of 21.9%, representing the largest relative mismatch between job supply and demand. For people aged 25-34⁴⁸, Spain also has one of the highest overqualification rates in the EU. Overqualification affects young men more than young women and people born outside Spain more than native-born (European Commission, 2023). Over the last 5 years, this rate has decreased by 1.5 pps. In 2023, the employment rate of recent tertiary graduates (aged 20-34) continued to rise but is still below the EU average (83% vs 88%)⁴⁹. The reform of the university system includes, among other measures, performance-based funding schemes that consider the job insertion rates of their graduates. This will allow universities to offer degrees more relevant to the labour market and the societal needs.

Spain is widening scholarships to allow more students from middle-class families and students with special educational needs to access tertiary studies. For 2024/2025, the budget for scholarships increased by 4.4% compared to 2023/2024 (around EUR 2 535 million) and is expected to reach nearly 1 million university and non-university students ⁵⁰. In 2023/2024, investment totalled EUR 1.17 billion, reaching 291 450 students, around 25% of Bachelor’s and Master’s students in public universities. Spain increased scholarships for university studies by 22% between 2018 and 2023. The average university scholarship provided by the state increased from EUR 2 591 in 2018 to EUR 4 014 in 2023. The income and family assets thresholds and the amounts of scholarships and study aid for the 2024-2025 academic year were increased to widen the coverage among middle-income families and students with special educational needs⁵¹.

The Spanish government approved the creation of 3 400 positions for assistant professors, a contractual position before becoming a tenured professor. 60% of the costs is covered by the central administration and the rest by the autonomous communities. It is the largest investment in university staff in history, and it is expected to rejuvenate it.

6. Adult learning

Participation in adult learning has increased over the last decade but remains lower for people over 55 and for low-skilled adults. The share of adults (aged 25-64) participating in learning activities in the past 12 months was 34.1% in 2022, below the EU average of 39.5% and the ambitious national goal of 60% by 2030⁵². The equivalent indicators for low-skilled individuals (15.4%) and people over 55 (23.4%)⁵³ remain significantly lower than the average participation, although their needs for upskilling and reskilling are more pressing. To address these challenges, the Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities presented a plan in 2023 to promote the completion of micro-credentials with a focus on disadvantaged social groups⁵⁴. Furthermore, MEFD has launched a new model for the accreditation of professional skills is expected to provide formal professional accreditation for 2 million workers through work experience and non-formal training by 2025⁵⁵.

Although in line with the EU average, challenges persist regarding advanced digital skills. Spain’s target for basic digital skills by 2030 is 85% of the population, above the EU target of 80%. The 2024 Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI) Scoreboard shows that Spain performs relatively well, with 66.2% of people aged 16-74 having a basic level of digital skills (above the EU average of 55.6%). Despite 39% of people aged 16-74 having advanced digital skills, Spain still has room for improvement, particularly in the proportion of ICT specialists. The RRF and the ESF+ fund training activities to improve digital skills, including an ESF+ initiative in Castille-La Mancha aimed at providing digital skills to people over 55. Additionally, at least 560 000 teachers will receive digital skills training certification under the Spanish recovery and resilience plan.

Training funded by public employment services poses different challenges for unemployed and employed workers. Training for unemployed workers reached only 6.6% of the unemployed in 2022, which points to its limited impact. Although three out of four companies offer training to their employees, smaller businesses are less likely to do so, suggesting that there is an opportunity to improve in the training of employed workers⁵⁶ and in the participation of SMEs ⁵⁷.