Education and Training Monitor 2024

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Comparative report

Chapter 5. Higher education

5.1. Tertiary educational attainment

EU-level 2030 target: ‘The share of 25-34-year-olds with tertiary educational attainment should be at least 45% by 2030.’

EU-level 2030 target⁽²⁵⁰⁾: ‘At least 20 million people should be employed as ICT specialists by 2030.’

There has been a continuing expansion of tertiary education over the last decade across the EU. Tertiary educational attainment is now the most common level of attainment among young adults. In 2023, the tertiary attainment rate of 25-34-year-olds was 43.1%⁽²⁵¹⁾, up 1.1 percentage points from the previous year (Figure 23). The EU trend is positive overall, but there was a decrease in 14 countries between 2022 and 2023⁽²⁵²⁾.

Looking at the long-term trend since 2014, the rate has increased in virtually all countries and by more than 7.2 percentage points at EU level⁽²⁵³⁾. The exceptions are Romania, Hungary, and Finland where a 2014-2023 decline has been recorded. Positive trends in the number of new entrants⁽²⁵⁴⁾ (students enrolled in tertiary education for the first time) are expected to sustain this growth and help the EU reach its 2030 target of at least 45%⁽²⁵⁵⁾, from which it is now only 1.9 percentage points away⁽²⁵⁶⁾.

Figure 23. The tertiary educational attainment rate has increased in the last decade in almost all EU countries

Bar chart showing the evolution in the share of 25-34-year-olds who attained tertiary education across the EU, in 2014, 2022 and 2023. From 2014 to 2022 the shares increased in all countries but Poland and Romania. Between 2022 and 2023 no clear pattern is visible, with half of the countries seeing an increase and the other half a decrese. In 2023, Ireland had the highest share of tertiary educational attainment at 62.7%, while Romania had the lowest share with 22.5%. The EU level target of 45.0% was met by 13 countries (Ireland, Cyprus, Luxembourg, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Sweden, Spain, France, Belgium, Denmak, Malta, Poland, and Latvia) and three more are within 2.0% of reaching it (Greece, Estonia, and Austria).

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Tertiary educational attainment also varies a lot within countries, with regional differences pronounced⁽²⁵⁷⁾. This creates imbalances in the availability of highly qualified people across regions, undermining economic, social, and territorial cohesion. Similarly, having a tertiary degree is less common in rural areas (31.7%) than in cities (53.3%)⁽²⁵⁸⁾, where most opportunities to acquire tertiary education – along with job opportunities – are concentrated. The urban-rural gap has increased slightly in the last decade (from 19.7 percentage points in 2014 to 21.6 percentage points in 2023)⁽²⁵⁹⁾.

Individually, migrant status and sex show strong patterns of inequality. Men (37.6%) are less likely to have obtained tertiary level qualifications than women (48.8%)⁽²⁶⁰⁾ and this gender gap has increased since 2014 at EU level⁽²⁶¹⁾. Adults aged 25-34 born outside the EU whose parents were also born outside the EU are the least likely to have obtained a tertiary degree (37.1% in 2023). This figure is 5.8 percentage points higher for adults born in the reporting country whose parents were born outside the EU, and it increases to 44.6% for adults born in the reporting country whose parents were also born there⁽²⁶²⁾.

Box 11. Adapting tertiary education programmes to the demands of the green transition

Tertiary education can play a major role in preparing and empowering individuals and societies to be more sustainable, equipping graduates with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed for a rapidly changing global context. But it also means directing research and innovation towards managing the impacts of the climate emergency and exploring solutions. To do all this, higher education institutions are incorporating the concept of sustainability into their mission statements, programmes, and strategies. For instance, in the Flemish community of Belgium, Ghent University has integrated sustainability into a wide range of disciplines through a university-wide policy commitment to sustainability.

At the same time, higher education institutions in the EU are developing programmes to prepare the necessary specialists⁽²⁶³⁾. For instance, Malta has launched undergraduate and postgraduate programmes in environmental management and sustainability, environmental monitoring and assessment, and sustainable energy and development. At Finland’s University of Helsinki, the institute of sustainability science offers multidisciplinary bachelor’s and master's degrees in environmental change, global sustainability, and urban studies and planning. The ‘CHARM-EU’ alliance – a European university alliance – offers a joint master’s degree in global challenges for sustainability, a transdisciplinary degree focused on water, food, and health to contribute to achieving the sustainable development goals and the European green deal. The ‘Una Europa’ and ‘Aurora’ alliances develop lifelong learning opportunities embedded in flexible learning modules such as micro-credentials in sustainability and climate change.

While the share of 25-34-year-olds with tertiary education has been increasing since 2014⁽²⁶⁴⁾, not everyone will have completed educational programmes by the end of their theoretical duration⁽²⁶⁵⁾. Figure 24 shows a wide variation across countries in completion rates within the theoretical duration of students starting bachelor’s programmes, ranging from 21% in Italy and the French community of Belgium to 59% in Lithuania. The completion rate after 3 additional years increases for all countries, but it tends to increase more where the completion rate by the end of a programme’s theoretical duration is lower. In every country for which data are available, women’s completion rates are higher than men’s⁽²⁶⁶⁾.

Figure 24. Less than half of all students complete bachelor’s programmes within the theoretical duration

Bar chart showing the share of students completing a bachelor's program by the end of the theoretical duration of the programme, and three years later. Data is shown for 14 education systems in the EU. The shares for the theoretical duration range bewteen 20.6% in Italy and 58.9% in Lithuania, whereas three years later the shares show higher homogeneity, ranging between 51.9% in the French community of Belgium and over 70% in Finland, Portugal, Spain, France and the Netherlands.

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To increase completion rates and achieve equity at the same time, governments can use grants to give students from disadvantaged backgrounds equal opportunities⁽²⁶⁷⁾. In most EU education systems, grants are awarded based on a set of socio-economic criteria, the most frequent being family income. In 6 systems, needs-based grants are provided for under 10% of students in bachelor’s programmes (Figure 25). This may mean that there has been a decision to support only students who most need financial support, but it may also indicate a relatively low level of investment in student support. In 10 systems, needs-based grants are given to between 10-30% of students, and in 5 systems to over 30% of students. Universal grants – for which all students are eligible regardless of their socio-economic background – are provided in Denmark, Finland, Sweden, Luxembourg, and Malta⁽²⁶⁸⁾.

Figure 25. Most EU countries provide needs-based grants to support the participation in tertiary education of more disadvantaged students

Map showing EU countries coloured according to whether the education systems include needs-based grants. The majority of the education systems provide needs-based grants for up to 30% of students, five education systems (Cyprus, France, Hungary, Ireland, and the Netherlands) have needs-based grants for more than 30%, whereas another five provide universal grants (Denmark, Finland, Luxembourg, Malta, and Sweden).

Needs-based grants for less than 10% of students
- Bulgaria, Czechia, Greece, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia
Needs-based grants for 10-30% of students
- Austria, Belgium - Flemish community, Belgium - French community, Croatia, Estonia, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain
Needs-based grants for more than 30% of students
- Cyprus, France, Hungary, Ireland, Netherlands
Universal grants
- Denmark, Finland, Luxembourg, Malta, Sweden

Source: Bologna follow-up group data collection, European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice (2024). Note: The data refer to bachelor students in the 2022/2023 academic year.

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Indirect financial support can also be given to disadvantaged students to make participation in tertiary education more affordable for them. Subsidies are provided in 17 EU education systems⁽²⁶⁹⁾ to cover student accommodation (see also Box 12), transport, and meals⁽²⁷⁰⁾. Besides individual support, higher education institutions may be supported by means of funding to help them reach agreed targets in widening access to and increasing the participation in (and completion of) tertiary education studies for disadvantaged groups. However, this happens in only a few EU countries, as shown in Figure 26⁽²⁷¹⁾.

Box 12. Student accommodation across EU countries

Investments in accommodation for tertiary students may help them access and complete tertiary studies. This is especially the case for students from rural areas or more disadvantaged regions, as well as for students with disabilities or special needs who need more accessible and inclusive facilities. High accommodation costs (notably in large metropolitan areas) may be a barrier to enrolling in tertiary education, sometimes forcing them to abandon their studies altogether⁽²⁷²⁾. The EU is supporting countries in their efforts to improve the provision of student accommodation.

In 2019, Portugal launched a national plan for housing in tertiary education, as the existing offer supported only a small percentage (around 10%) of students in need of accommodation. Its implementation is being financially supported by the Recovery and Resilience Facility. With an allocation of EUR 516 million, a 78% increase in capacity is expected between 2021 and 2026. This includes the provision of 18 000 beds, the construction of new buildings, the rehabilitation of existing buildings, and the modernisation and expansion of existing student residences.

Through InvestEU, the EU provides a guarantee for investment in student housing, leveraging resources from public and private sources. For instance, a EUR 178 million investment was launched in 2023 to address housing shortages in the Limassol and Paphos areas of Cyprus. The project will also contribute to upgrading and expanding the learning and research facilities of the Cyprus University of Technology.

In 2023, with the support of the European Investment Bank, Ireland started investing about EUR 430 million to finance 2 700 new student beds. In January 2024, the government approved a long-term policy for developing student accommodation, as part of its ‘housing for all’ initiative. The initiative aims to develop standards to reduce the cost of construction and increase the pace of delivery, further increasing the amount of available student accommodation, and transforming vacant properties into housing for students.

Figure 26. Only a few EU countries link funding for higher education institutions to equity targets

Map showing EU countries coloured according to whether funding for higher education institutions is linked to quantitative equity-related targets. The majority, 20 out of 29 education systems, do not link funding to equity targets. In nine education systems (Flemish community of Belgium, Ireland, Greece, Italy, Lithuania, Austria, Poland, Romania, and Slovakia) the funding is linked to widening access, completion targets, and/or other equity targets.

Funding linked to widening access targets
- Austria, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Lithuania, Poland, Romania
Funding linked to completion targets
- Austria, Belgium - Flemish community, Ireland, Italy, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia
Funding linked to other equity targets
- Belgium - Flemish community
No equity targets linked to funding
- Belgium - French community, Belgium - German-speaking community, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Latvia, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden

Source: 2024 Eurydice system-level indicators.

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Computer and information literacy are part of most tertiary studies⁽²⁷³⁾ (such as data management and the application of AI), but in all EU countries there is a particularly severe shortage⁽²⁷⁴⁾ of digital experts. This could hinder the development, uptake, and use of emerging key technologies. In response to the demands of the digital transition⁽²⁷⁵⁾, the EU has set itself ambitious 2030 targets, such as the employment of 20 million ICT professionals⁽²⁷⁶⁾. For the EU to reach this target, the number of ICT tertiary graduates (3.9 per thousand among 20-29-year-olds in 2022⁽²⁷⁷⁾) should increase significantly in the medium term⁽²⁷⁸⁾. At 5.1% in 2022, the share of new entrants to ICT areas⁽²⁷⁹⁾ at tertiary level was among the smallest of all areas of study, including other science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields.

With only 5.1% of new entrants choosing ICT fields, the shortage of digital experts faced by all EU countries is likely to remain critical.

Gender differences⁽²⁸⁰⁾ are substantial, as Figure 27 shows. Out of all male new entrants, 9.0% chose ICT programmes in 2022, compared to 1.9% of women⁽²⁸¹⁾. Women make up the majority of tertiary graduates in all EU countries, but in ICT, only one in five (21.3%)⁽²⁸²⁾ graduates is a woman. New female entrants to ICT programmes represent 20.2% of ICT entrants – and the share has increased by only 1.6 percentage points since 2016 – leaving ICT dominated by men.

Figure 27. ICT areas attract a much smaller share of female entrants to tertiary education

Sunburst charts showing the distribution of new entrants in tertiary education by field of education for men and women. Gender differences are clearly visible. For men, the highest shares, around 25%, correspond to "Engineering, manufacturing and construction" and "Business, adminsitration and law". "Information and Communication Technologies", "Arts and humanities" and "Natural Sciences, mathematics and statistics" are chosen by around 8-9% of the students, whereas "Social sciences, journalism and information" and "Health and welfare" are around 7%. On the other hand, for women, although the share in "Business, adminsitration and law" is rather similar (24.6%), the share in "Engineering, manufacturing and construction" drops to less than 8%, whereas the shares in "Social sciences, journalism and information" and "Arts and humanities" are higher than in men (12.4% and 13.7% respectively). The gender differences are also remarkable in "Health and welfare", selected by 17.0% of the women, in "Education" (10% versus 3.2% for men) and particularly in "Information and Communication Technologies" (1.9% versus 9.0% ).

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As for the change between 2016 and 2022 in the distribution of new entrants by area of study, the share of new entrants to ICT programmes increased by less than one percentage point (0.7)⁽²⁸³⁾. It is unlikely that the target of 20 million ICT professionals will be reached unless more is done to increase interest in studying ICT⁽²⁸⁴⁾. Moreover, while the share of new entrants to ICT areas increased by 0.7 percentage point, the share entering engineering – another STEM area – decreased by 0.9 percentage point. This suggests that STEM areas are not attracting an increasing relative share of entrants⁽²⁸⁵⁾ despite the high demand for them on the labour market.

Box 13. Addressing labour market needs in tertiary education

Improving tertiary education programmes’ labour market relevance is an important means of tackling skills gaps and contributing to EU competitiveness⁽²⁸⁶⁾. For instance, under the 2021-27 National Plan for the Development of the Education System, adopted in 2023, Croatia introduced performance agreements and revised methods for internal quality assurance and the external evaluation of higher education institutions, as well as accreditation procedures and new study programmes.

Latvia is consolidating its tertiary education sector with a view to strengthening its STEM offer and increasing the number of STEM graduates, to respond to industry needs. Ongoing reforms include a new funding model to increase the autonomy of higher education institutions in allocating government funding internally to focus on course quality, and the introduction of a new PhD model to address the current lack of researchers.

At EU level, work to collect data on tertiary education graduates to improve the matching between tertiary education and labour market needs continues. Following a feasibility study and a first pilot survey in 2018, the EUROGRADUATE 2022 survey is the second pilot run of a European survey to track tertiary education graduates.

The EUROGRADUATE core target group covers all graduates who obtained a bachelor’s or master’s degree (or equivalent) in the academic years 2016/17 and 2020/21. Graduates have been asked about their education and work history, competences required in their job, mobility experiences, personal and social background, and social outcomes such as political engagement.

The 2022 pilot was rolled out in 17 European Economic Area pilot countries (Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czechia, Estonia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Malta, Norway, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia). For the next phase of EUROGRADUATE, the European Commission aims to cover 80% of the European Economic Area countries.

Main takeaway

The tertiary educational attainment rate of 25–34-year-olds continues to increase, reaching 43.1% in 2023. Educational attainment at tertiary level is now the most common level of attainment among young adults in the EU, though substantial differences remain within countries. To support equal access to tertiary education, EU countries provide direct and indirect financial support. Disadvantaged students can receive needs-based grants in almost all EU education systems – even though the share of the student population covered varies a lot – and subsidies are available to cover meals, transport, and accommodation in 18 systems across the EU. As an example of the link between tertiary education and the labour market, there have been no substantial improvements in the number of entrants and graduates in ICT, despite the 2030 EU-level target of 20 million ICT specialists.

5.2. Learning mobility in tertiary education

EU-level 2030 target⁽²⁸⁷⁾: ‘The share of tertiary graduates with a learning mobility experience abroad should be at least 23% by 2030.’

The full picture of learning mobility in tertiary education remains unclear because of data limitations. In 2022, 10.9% of tertiary education⁽²⁸⁸⁾ graduates originating from EU countries⁽²⁸⁹⁾ had a learning mobility experience abroad. Graduate outward mobility⁽²⁹⁰⁾ appears to be well below the 23% target set for 2030. Only 4.2% of graduates graduated in a country that was not the one where they received their upper secondary school diploma, known as degree mobility, while 6.7% had a short stay abroad, known as credit mobility.However, several limitations affect learning mobility data (Box 14), which may lead to an underestimation of the EU average and of country performance.

An estimated 10.9% of graduates have experienced learning mobility, with degree mobility accounting for 4.2% and credit mobility for 6.7%.

Considerable country differences emerge in the share of outward mobile graduates, as captured in Figure 28. Luxembourg and Cyprus have reached the 2030 EU-level target: Luxembourg with 79.6% mobile graduates, and Cyprus with 28.6% mobile graduates. Two other EU countries’ mobility rates are above 15% (Slovakia and France), but Poland’s and Italy’s rates are below 5%. Total shares of outward mobility combine different types of mobility depending on the country. Credit mobility represents more than half of the total share of outward mobility in France, the Netherlands, Spain, Denmark, Sweden, Germany, Belgium, Finland, and Austria.

Figure 28. Considerable country differences in the shares of outward mobility

Stacked bar chart showing the share of graduates having participated in mobility experiences in tertiary education across the EU. The columns show the share of credit mobility lasting at least three months or 15 ECTS and the the share of degree mobility. The only countries reaching the EU-level target (23.0%) are Luxembourg and Cyprus with 79.6% and 28.6% respectively, the vast majority corresponding to degree mobility. On the other hand, the shares are below 10% in eleven countries.

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Short study periods or traineeships abroad⁽²⁹¹⁾ funded by EU programmes account for more than half of EU credit mobility (54.6%)⁽²⁹²⁾ and of most EU countries’ credit mobility. Exceptions are France, Sweden, the Netherlands, and Denmark, where graduates more often tend to organise their mobility independently or as part of other (inter)national programmes⁽²⁹³⁾. Over 95% of credit-mobile graduates from Slovakia, Latvia, Malta, Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Cyprus, and Ireland went abroad under EU programmes⁽²⁹⁴⁾.

Box 14. Monitoring progress towards the ‘Europe on the Move’ target on learning mobility in tertiary education

Learning mobility⁽²⁹⁵⁾ helps strengthen transnational cooperation in tertiary education, widening the reach of individual education institutions and education systems, and increasing their overall quality⁽²⁹⁶⁾. Moving abroad to study improves employability and adaptability⁽²⁹⁷⁾ and strengthens citizenship competences and values, including a European identity. Promoting learning mobility also attracts more talent to the EU, by having non-EU students graduate from EU education institutions and encouraging them, after graduating, to stay and work in the destination country⁽²⁹⁸⁾.

The 2024 Council Recommendation ‘Europe on the Move’ updates the 2011 learning mobility framework by expanding learning mobility opportunities – from young people to learners of any age, educators, and staff – and addressing new learning patterns, including blended learning. The Recommendation sets a new 2030 EU-level target⁽²⁹⁹⁾ on learning mobility in tertiary education, for at least 23% of all graduates to have had a learning mobility experience abroad.

The target refers to worldwide outward mobility. In other words, mobility from EU countries to both EU and non-EU destinations. It includes: (i) outward degree mobility; (ii) outward credit mobility of a minimum of 3 months or 15 European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) credits (including both traineeships and study mobility); and (ii) shorter outward credit mobility of less than 3 months and at least 3 ECTS credits. These mobility experiences can be fully physical or blended (consisting of both a virtual and physical component).

Monitoring progress towards achieving the 2030 EU-level target on learning mobility in tertiary education is complicated by data limitations. Firstly, degree mobility is reported by the destination country (where graduates obtain their degree), meaning that EU countries are dependent on non-EU countries’ reporting⁽³⁰⁰⁾. Secondly, shorter credit mobility of less than 3 months is not yet reported by all EU countries⁽³⁰¹⁾. Insofar as data on shorter credit mobility are available, no information is provided about ECTS credits, and no clear distinction can be made between degree and credit mobility, with the risk of double counting when all mobility experiences are added up⁽³⁰²⁾.

Another indicator concerns inward degree mobility. In 2022, an average of 8.7%⁽³⁰³⁾ tertiary education graduates in the EU were inward degree mobile. The countries attracting the highest shares of inward degree-mobile graduates were Luxembourg⁽³⁰⁴⁾ (28.7%), Malta (28.6%), and the Netherlands (24.4%)⁽³⁰⁵⁾. Another 11 countries⁽³⁰⁶⁾ recorded shares between 20% and 10%. However, Greece, Italy, Croatia, Poland, and Romania have yet to reach shares of 5%. For most EU countries, the higher the education level, the higher the shares of inward degree mobility. Across the EU, 1.4% of graduates in short-cycle degrees are degree mobile. The inward degree mobility rate increases to 5.8% at bachelor level, 14.6% at master level, and up to 25.9% among PhDs.

Figure 29 shows inward degree mobility data by region of origin. Differences between EU countries can be explained by historical ties, geographical proximity, and shared languages, among other reasons⁽³⁰⁷⁾. Overall, 30.0% of inward degree-mobile graduates came from EU countries in 2022, followed by Asia (24.2%), Africa (17.3%), and non-EU European countries (12.4%). Marked differences exist across countries. Intra-EU mobility accounted for more than half of all inward degree mobility in 9 countries (and above 70% in Austria, Greece, and Luxembourg). Conversely, in Poland, Croatia, and France, less than 15% of mobile graduates came from another EU country.

Figure 29. Intra-EU degree mobility accounts for less than half of all inward degree mobility in most EU countries

Bar chart showing the distribution of incoming degree mobile graduates across the EU by region of origin, grouped as follows: EU, non-EU European countries, Africa, Northern America, Caribbean, Central and South America, Asia, Oceania, and Not specified. Across the EU, 30.0% of incoming graduates are from other EU countries and another 12.4% are from non-EU European countries. Almost a quarter of graduates come from Asia. There are substantial differences across countries. While mobility originating in the EU is around or over 70% in Austria, Greece and Luxembourg, in Poland, Croatia and Lithuania the majority come from the rest of Europe. In Ireland and Italy, where the share of degree mobile graduates originating in other EU countries is also low, the majoriy come from Asia. Similarly, in France the main region of origin is Africa.

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Box 15. Towards a European degree

The 2024 European Commission Communication on a blueprint for a European degree seeks to advance transnational cooperation between higher education institutions, with the goal of creating a European degree recognised automatically across the EU. Higher education institutions can voluntarily create joint degree programmes based on a common set of criteria agreed at European level. The European degree will be awarded to students following a transnational education experience organised jointly by a group of universities across Europe or by a body established by several universities from different countries.

A European degree is expected to support learning mobility in the EU and attract more talent from around the world. This may in turn expand the EU’s innovation capacity⁽³⁰⁸⁾. The blueprint includes a gradual plan for a European degree, a proposal for a Council Recommendation on a European quality assurance and recognition system and a proposal on attractive and sustainable careers in tertiary education. In 2025, the Commission plans to launch ‘European degree pathway projects’ to support EU countries and their accreditation and quality assurance agencies, and to help universities develop their pathways towards a European degree.

Comparing inward and outward degree mobility confirms that degree mobility is not only limited but also strikingly unbalanced. In terms only of intra-EU mobility⁽³⁰⁹⁾, Figure 30 shows that only Spain recorded a relative mobility balance in 2022⁽³¹⁰⁾. In other EU countries, mobility imbalances are common and, in some instances, substantial. Denmark, the Netherlands, and Malta are the highest net receiver (above 80%) of degree-mobile graduates from other EU countries relative to how many students they send abroad to graduate in another EU country⁽³¹¹⁾. At the other extreme, Croatia, Slovakia, Greece, Italy, and Lithuania were the highest net sender countries (above 70%).

Figure 30. Intra-EU degree mobility is highly imbalanced

Bar chart showing the differences in intra-EU degree mobility when it comes to countries sending and receiving graduates. Denmark, the Netherlands, and Malta are the highest net receiver (above 80%) of degree mobile graduates from other EU countries relative to how many students they send abroad to graduate in another EU country. At the other extreme, Croatia, Slovakia, Greece, Italy, and Lithuania were the highest net sender countries (above 70%). Only Spain recorded a relative mobility balance in 2022.

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Finally, not everyone has equal access to learning mobility opportunities. Disadvantaged learners are less likely to participate⁽³¹²⁾, missing out on the benefits of mobility experiences and further deepening the divide between them and their more advantaged peers. Tackling this issue is one of the objectives of the 2024 Council Recommendation, setting the goal of giving learning mobility access to at least 20% of people with fewer opportunities out of all learners benefiting from learning mobility abroad by 2027⁽³¹³⁾. However, quantitative targets to increase equity in learning mobility are not widespread across EU countries. Several long-term targets introduced between 2015/2016 and 2018/2019 have been abandoned. Only Austria has set a long-term target to increase the participation of disadvantaged students in learning mobility programmes in its strategy on tertiary education. Short-term (year-on-year) targets can only be found in Greece, Malta, and Portugal⁽³¹⁴⁾.

Main takeaway

In 2022, the outward mobility rate was only 11.0% at EU level, 12 percentage points lower than the target set for 2030. However, figures are likely to be underestimated due to several limitations affecting learning mobility data. Such data cover graduates obtaining their degree abroad and graduates who only had a short stay abroad, the latter mainly financed by Erasmus+. Inward degree mobility varies a lot between countries in terms of shares and regions of origin. This depends, among other things, on historical ties, geographical proximity, and shared languages. Overall, 30% of inward degree mobility to EU countries also originated from EU countries in 2022. Intra-EU mobility accounted for more than half of all inward degree mobility in one third of EU countries. Mobility in the EU tends to be highly imbalanced in terms of countries that mostly send students abroad versus countries that mostly host students from other EU countries.

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Notes

250.See the 2022 Decision of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing the Digital Decade Policy Programme 2030.
251.Among them, a master’s degree is the most common educational level attained (19.2%) closely followed by a bachelor’s degree (18.8%). Only 4.5% of young adults (25-34) have a short-cycle degree and fewer than 1% (0.7%) of 25-34-year-olds have a doctorate. Monitor Toolbox
252.Slovenia, Hungary, Romania, the Netherlands, Portugal, Finland, Belgium, Czechia, Lithuania, Latvia, Luxembourg, Greece, Estonia, and Ireland. Monitor Toolbox
253.The rate has increased by more than 10 percentage points in Slovakia, Germany, the Netherlands, Spain, and Malta. Monitor Toolbox
254.Monitor Toolbox
255.See a 2023 European Commission (Joint Research Centre) report.
256.In 2023, 13 EU countries were above the 45% target. Monitor Toolbox
257.Monitor Toolbox Tertiary education rates tend to be higher in more developed (transition) regions than in less developed ones, and higher in north-western EU countries than in southern and eastern ones. Over 40% of regions in Italy, Romania, Czechia, and Hungary had rates below 30% in 2023. See the 2024 European Commission report on economic, social, and territorial cohesion.
258.Monitor Toolbox
259.Low quality job opportunities and limited access to quality services such as education, health services, and other facilities in rural areas and less developed regions may contribute to these imbalances and reduce the possibilities of attracting and retaining people with tertiary education. See the 2024 European Commission Communication on a long-term vision for the EU’s rural areas; the 2024 European Commission report on economic, social, and territorial cohesion; the 2024 Eurostat regional yearbook; the 2023 European Commission Communication on harnessing talent in Europe’s regions; and the 2024 Eurofound report on the role of human capital inequalities in social cohesion and convergence.
260.The gender gap varies from 4.9 percentage points in Germany to 24.2 percentage points in Estonia. Only seven EU countries have gaps that are below 10 percentage points. Between 2014 and 2023, the gap decreased in only nine EU countries. Monitor Toolbox
261.Only Malta, the Netherlands, and Sweden have policies for tackling gender equity issues that cover all institutions, include quantitative targets, envisage stakeholder consultations, and require quality assurance agencies to monitor whether higher education institutions address gender issues. Some 7 EU countries (Denmark, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia) and the German-speaking community of Belgium have no such policies. See the 2024 Eurydice system-level indicators. Monitor Toolbox
262.Monitor Toolbox
263.Skills gaps and shortages are being recognised as bottlenecks hindering progress in completing the green transition. See the 2024 OECD working paper on green career guidance systems.
264.Not everyone can access tertiary education because of their socio-economic background, educational background, disabilities or special needs, insufficient guidance and support, and other obstacles. According to a 2022 Eurydice report on equity and inclusion in tertiary education, admission policies to increase the participation of under-represented groups should be based on the following five elements: (i) a strategy for increasing participation of under-represented groups in all institutions’ programmes; (ii) funding measures for increasing the participation in education in later life; (iii) atypical entry routes; (iv) quality assurance agencies to monitor whether higher education institutions correctly implement measures for admission to tertiary education; and (v) at least two characteristics (other than age and sex) are taken into account in designing measures for encouraging the participation of under-represented groups. Across the EU, 16 countries plus the French community of Belgium have a policy in place that covers at least four out of five of the elements listed above. See the 2024 Eurydice system-level indicators. Monitor Toolbox
265.Many factors can affect completion rates. Students may leave a programme because they realise they have chosen a subject or educational programme that is not suitable for them, or they find attractive employment opportunities before completing the programme. Higher education institutions can also provide flexible learning pathways, thereby increasing the number of students who may not graduate on time. However, these pathways are essential for students who cannot allocate all their time to their studies and may have to reconcile several obligations (such as their studies and employment). All that said, students’ socio-economic background is a strong determinant of completing studies within length of time within which they are meant to be completed.
266.Monitor Toolbox
267.Providing higher education institutions with additional funding to help them increase completion rates cannot but indirectly benefit disadvantaged students as the measure would benefit all students. Conversely, giving disadvantaged students grants can help mitigate the effect of financial constraints on participation and completion.
268.However, the availability of grants does not preclude that the amount of money is sufficient to cover all student expenses. For more information about students’ financial resources, see Eurostudent VIII.
269.These are the Flemish and French communities of Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Greece, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia. Sweden is the only country where there are no measures to support indirect costs. See the 2024 Eurydice system-level indicators. Monitor Toolbox
270.However, the availability of subsidies does not preclude that they are sufficient to cover students’ expenses, that the student accommodation is of appropriate quality, or that the subsidies meet the full demand for accommodation.
271.See the 2024 Eurydice system-level indicators. Monitor Toolbox
272.For more information about how student accommodation costs impact students’ life and living conditions, see Eurostudent VIII.
273.This is why a 2030 EU-level target was set for all learners’ computer and information literacy, as early as age 13-14. This Education and Training Monitor does not cover the EU-level target, as the underlying data were not available during drafting. The data are from the International Computer and Information Literacy Study (ICILS) as conducted by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA). The online Monitor Toolbox has links to ICILS 2023 data as published on 12 November 2024.
274.Persistent labour shortages are mainly found in healthcare, STEM (especially in ICT), construction, and some service occupations. This list also includes middle-skilled and low-skilled occupations requiring a medium-level vocational qualification. Overall, employers’ difficulties in finding people with the right skills are not only due to a lack of skills among job applicants but also to an inability to attract and retain workers, whether because of poor working conditions, human resource management, or demographic developments. A limited supply of skilled workers risks causing persistent labour shortages in areas such as STEM and healthcare. See the 2023 European Commission report on employment and social developments in Europe; the 2024 EURES Report on labour shortages and surpluses; and the 2024 Draghi report on the future of European competitiveness.
275.Like VET (Chapter 4), tertiary education plays a key role in preparing EU countries not only to respond to the digital transition but also to the broader needs of the labour market, population ageing, societal resilience and preparedness, the green transition, and calls for greater competitiveness.
276.In 2023, there were about 10 million ICT specialists at EU level. People with a tertiary degree represented 66.7% of the total number of ICT specialists. Monitor Toolbox See also a 2023 European Commission report on the state of the Digital Decade.
277.Monitor Toolbox
278.Among people aged 25-64 with a tertiary qualification, only 5.1% have an ICT degree. Monitor Toolbox
279.Monitor Toolbox
280.For more information, see a 2020 European Commission report on gender differences in tertiary education; and a 2024 European Commission report on how to address the gender gap in STEM education across educational levels.
281.The gender gap is less pronounced in the other two STEM areas: women represent 52.0% of new entrants to natural sciences, mathematics, and statistics; and 26.3% of new entrants to engineering, manufacturing, and construction. Monitor Toolbox
282.Female shares are higher for engineering, manufacturing, and construction (27.7%) and natural sciences, mathematics, and statistics (59.7%). Monitor Toolbox
283.The number of new entrants in tertiary education increased by about 18% between 2016 and 2022, while the number of new entrants in ICT increased by 35.2% (from 191 499 to 259 013). Monitor Toolbox
284.This also concerns vocational education and training (Chapter 4), as the shortage of ICT specialists applies to medium-level occupations too.
285.Student outcomes at school level are one the drivers of career aspirations. See a 2021 European Commission report on girls’ career aspiration in STEM.
286.See the 2024 Draghi report on the future of European competitiveness on how to tackle skills gaps.
287.See the 2024 Council Recommendation ’Europe on the Move’.
288.It refers to learning mobility at all levels of tertiary education, from short-cycle tertiary education to doctoral or equivalent level. Monitor Toolbox
289.Mobile graduates are defined by their country of origin. In this context, the country of origin is the country of prior education (the country where the upper secondary diploma was obtained).
290.The outward graduate mobility of a country is the sum of all graduates originating from the country who obtained their degree abroad (degree-mobile graduates) and graduates who obtained their degree in the country but spent a short period abroad (credit-mobile graduates). The outward mobility rate of a country is the number of degree- and credit-mobile graduates from that country divided by the number of graduates originating from the country. For more details, see a 2018 European Commission (Joint Research Centre) report.
291.This paragraph only refers to credit-mobile graduates who spent at least 3 months abroad. Information on the type of mobility scheme is not available for credit-mobile graduates who spent less than 3 months abroad.
292.Monitor Toolbox These data by type of mobility scheme refer to all credit-mobile graduates who spent at least 3 months abroad, not to only those graduates who were not also degree mobile. This means that they do not correspond to the credit mobility component used to monitor progress towards reaching the 2030 EU-level target.
293.Rates range from 62.8% in France to 53.7% in Denmark. Monitor Toolbox
294.This may be partly due to the lack of multilateral and bilateral national and institutional exchange programmes. Another reason could be the limited public and private resources for mobility available to graduates to finance their mobility.
295.For the purpose of the 2024 Council Recommendation, learning mobility is defined as moving physically to a country other than the learner’s country of residence, to undertake studies, training, or non-formal or informal learning. The Recommendation covers all types of long-term and short-term learning mobility, including individual and group mobility, blended mobility (including its virtual components), credit mobility, and degree mobility. It covers learners, educators, and staff in all sectors of lifelong learning, including early childhood education and care, school education, VET, tertiary education, and adult learning, as well as young people, youth workers, and staff in sport.
296.The European Universities initiative, which establishes alliances between higher education institutions to promote European values and improve the international competitiveness of European higher education institutions, includes a target of 50% mobility among participating institutions, covering virtual mobility too.
297.International student mobility also has country-level benefits. Mobile students can contribute to knowledge absorption, technology upgrading and capacity building not only in the host country but also in their home country, provided they return to their home country after their studies or maintain strong links with that country. See a 2020 analytical report from EENEE.
298.The European strategy for universities highlights the importance of encouraging mobility between Europe and other regions of the world.
299.In VET, the share of vocational learners who benefit from a learning mobility experience abroad should be at least 12% (see Chapter 4).
300.For instance, the lack of data on degree-mobile graduates from the EU who graduated in the US has a major effect on the estimates, as EU students represent 5% of all mobile students in the US. But not even all EU countries report detailed information for each level of tertiary education on the country of origin of inward mobile graduates.
301.Data on shorter credit mobility were available in 2022 for the Flemish community of Belgium, Czechia, Estonia, Spain, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Austria, Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia, Finland, and Sweden.
302.The calculation of outward mobility rates is not the simple sum of degree- and credit-mobile graduates: graduates who are both degree and credit mobile should be identified to avoid double counting. When a student graduates in a country other than their country of origin, degree mobility takes precedence over any credit-mobile stays. The number of credit-mobile graduates should exclude those who are also degree mobile. There is the same double counting risk, to a lesser extent, for some countries for longer (at least 3 months) credit mobility. This is because not all EU countries provide information that makes it possible to identify credit-mobile graduates who were also degree mobile.
303.Inward mobile graduates are graduates in a country who come from another EU or non-EU country. A country’s inward mobility rate is calculated as the number of inward degree-mobile graduates in the country divided by the total number of that country’s graduates. For more details on how the rate is calculated, see a 2018 European Commission (Joint Research Centre) report.
304.This may include ‘frontier’ graduates, who commute to Luxembourg for study purposes. However, commuters are correctly considered degree mobile if they study at tertiary level in a country other than the one where they obtained their upper secondary level certificate. It is not residence, but participation in the education system abroad, that defines mobility.
305.Interestingly, these 3 countries have the highest shares of 25-34-year-olds with tertiary educational attainment who graduated in another EU or non-EU country (Luxembourg 80.9%; Malta 36.5%; the Netherlands 13.5%). This may be because people remain in the country after studying there due to, for instance, attractive working conditions. Other countries with rates higher than 10% are Austria (19.0%), Belgium (13.2%), Cyprus (52.5%), Germany (16.5%), Estonia (11.3%), and Ireland (23.0%). Monitor Toolbox
306.Latvia, Germany, Sweden, France, Belgium, Ireland, Hungary, Denmark, Czechia, Estonia, and Austria. Monitor Toolbox
307.University characteristics can also play a major role. Higher teaching quality, the availability of English-language programmes in non-English speaking countries, and a comparatively better reputation may attract more students from abroad. Research orientation and excellence are more relevant for degree mobility at doctoral level.
308.See the 2024 Letta report on the EU single market on how the European Degree may contribute to strengthening it.
309.This analysis only partially captures mobility imbalances as it focuses solely on intra-EU mobility. Outward degree mobility to the EU accounted for more than 50% of outward mobility in all but 8 countries (Denmark, Ireland, France, Cyprus, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, and Portugal) in 2022. Inward mobility from the EU accounted for more than half of inward degree mobility in 9 EU countries.
310.The rate was 1.9% in favour of inward mobility.
311.Denmark and the Netherlands also have outward mobility rates among the lowest in the EU (1.6% and 3.0%, respectively).
312.See a 2023 European Commission report on learning mobility.
313.Data on this sub-group of learners are not currently available. Data from Erasmus+ and European Solidarity Programmes are suggested as the closest proxy for the time being. The European Commission is invited to put forward a proposal for a new data collection methodology by 2026.
314.Austria aims to increase the participation of students without tertiary education qualifications in learning mobility programmes to at least 18% by 2025. In Greece, in 2022/2023, 20% of Erasmus+ students should have been students with fewer opportunities. In the same year, 5% of Maltese and 2% of Portuguese disadvantaged students should have been in tertiary education mobility programmes. See a 2023 Eurydice report.

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