Comparative report

Fostering competitiveness, advancing technological leadership, and strengthening security and strategic autonomy in a volatile geopolitical context are key priorities for the EU. STEM, encompassing Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics, plays a crucial role in achieving these goals. In the coming years, the EU aims to increase investments in artificial intelligence and advanced data analytics, renewable energy technologies, biotechnology, and meet its defence and security needs. Addressing current shortages in STEM fields and ensuring a stronger supply of STEM specialists that supports these ambitions is therefore crucial . While vocational education and training (VET) and tertiary education are critical to building a solid supply of STEM talents, early experiences at school also play a role. To this end, the European Commission adopted the STEM Education Strategic Plan as part of the Union of Skills. This chapter provides the state-of-play with regard to the current demand and supply of STEM professionals and enrolment in STEM programmes, and dive into key issues such as gender differences in STEM and drivers of study choices.

1.1. Demand and supply of STEM professionals

Amid imbalances between supply and demand in EU labour markets , STEM faces one of the most widespread labour shortages in the EU . Although there is a lack of harmonised demand-side indicators, the bulk of shortage occupations in STEM fields concerns crafts, construction and engineering. Among the top shortage occupations, several engineering professions feature consistently, including industry and production, electrical and civil engineering. Widespread shortages are also observed in ICT-related occupations, such as administrators and software developers, and application programmers.

High employment rates among recent STEM tertiary graduates across the EU (89.6%) also reflect the strong demand for STEM professionals . Across all education fields, the highest rates are recorded for graduates from engineering, manufacturing and construction (91.2%), followed by ICT (88.6%) . Similarly, in medium-level VET , recent graduates from STEM fields have a slightly higher employment rate (81.6%) than the average VET graduate (80.3%). VET graduates in manufacturing, construction and engineering (82.4%) are more likely to be employed than recent VET graduates in ICT (77.1%) .

Looking ahead, Cedefop’s skills forecasts indicate substantial future demand for STEM occupations. In the next decade, overall employment is forecast to grow from 213,8 million workers in 2022 to 224,5 million in 2035 in the EU. While employment in certain occupations (notably clerical workers and agricultural workers) is expected to decrease, there will be a strong growth particularly in some high-skilled STEM occupations, including ICT professionals and Science and engineering professionals (Figure 1). In particular, between 2022 and 2035, the total number of ICT professionals is expected to increase by 36%. The digital and green transitions will contribute to employment growth. Beyond employment growth, a large share of future job openings will result from replacement needs as workers leave the labour market, mainly through retirement. By 2035, for example, an estimated 34% of ICT professionals will need to be replaced. Meeting this demand will require a steady inflow of newly recruited and trained staff to sustain the STEM workforce.

Together, these trends confirm that demand for STEM specialists is both high and set to increase, especially in engineering and ICT, whereas labour market pressure on science and mathematics professions appears less pronounced.

On the supply side, 27.2% of the EU’s adult population (25-64) holds a tertiary STEM qualification, a share that has remained stable since 2021. Expanding the STEM workforce relies primarily on the steady inflow of tertiary and medium-level VET graduates. Among the younger population, the number of STEM tertiary graduates per thousand young people, is 14.3 per 1 000 20-34-year-olds at EU level However, this ratio varies considerably: eight EU countries have a ratio lower than 10.0, while France, Finland and Ireland record a ratio higher than 18.0. In medium-level VET, there are 11.8 graduates in STEM fields per 1 000 young people, ranging from 4.2 in Cyprus to 24.8 in Bulgaria. The number of STEM graduates is likely shaped by a country’s economic structure, as skill intensity varies across sectors and, within industry, across EU countries.

Unlike tertiary education, where the ratio has risen steadily from 12.0 in 2015 to 14.3 in 2023, trends in VET have been less consistent, showing growth since 2015 but with fluctuations Despite this gradual increase, STEM shortages persist, underscoring the need to further expand the number of STEM specialists, particularly in engineering and ICT, through higher enrolments in medium-level VET and in higher education (see Section 1.2). The European Skills Intelligence Observatory, under the Union of Skills, will provide data and evidence about current and future shortages to better align supply with labour demand.

When compared with other large, advanced economies, the EU has the second-lowest ratio of STEM tertiary graduates per 1 000 young people (14.3), above the US (13.1) but below the UK (17.9) and Canada (15.6). The comparison is even less favourable in the case of ICT. With a ratio of 2.6 ICT tertiary graduates per 1 000 young people, the EU ranks at the bottom of the distribution, while the UK is the best-performing country in this respect (4.6).

Amid the growing demand for STEM professionals, the STEM Education Strategic Plan therefore turns the focus to improving the enrolment figures across the EU to increase STEM supply in the near future. A lack of STEM professionals would put the EU at risk of falling behind in the global technology race, notably in strategic sectors such as clean and circular technologies, digital technologies, aerospace, and defence.

1.2. Enrolment in STEM

1.2.1. Current trends

In medium-level VET, 36.3% of all students across the EU are enrolled in STEM programmes (Figure 3). The rate is 2.3 percentage points higher than in 2015 but 8.7 percentage points below the proposed 2030 EU-level target of at least 45%. In recent years, the share of STEM enrolment in VET has fluctuated around 36%, ranging from 19.0% in the Netherlands to 59.8% in Cyprus. Six EU countries currently exceed the proposed EU target of at least 45% by 2030. Engineering, manufacturing and construction is the largest STEM subfield in VET, not just across the EU on average but in almost all EU countries.

However, these figures should be analysed in the context of overall VET enrolment at medium-level, which varies considerably across the EU. The VET sector in Cyprus, for example is strongly focused on STEM fields (59.8%), but very small in overall size in relation to the country’s total medium level education (17.9%). The Netherlands, on the other hand, has one of the larger VET sectors of all EU countries (69.6% of students in medium-level education), but only a small proportion of these VET students is enrolled in STEM fields (19.1%). Countries that have both a sizeable VET sector overall, and considerable share of STEM within this sector, include Czechia, Bulgaria, Austria, Slovenia, Croatia, Slovakia, and Poland. In these countries, more than one out of four students in medium-level education overall attends VET programmes in STEM fields.

In tertiary education, 26.9% of students are enrolled in STEM fields, 5.1 percentage points below the proposed 2030 EU-level target of at least 32% (Figure 4). The share of STEM students varies from 13.9% in Malta to 35.5% in Germany. Apart from Germany, also Finland (35.3%) and Greece (33.7%) have already reached the EU-level target value, while 12 countries have yet to reach 25%. More than half (54.6%) of all tertiary STEM students are enrolled in ‘engineering, manufacturing and construction’, compared to 25.1% in ‘natural sciences, mathematics and statistics’, and 20.3% in ICT. However, this distribution varies considerably between EU countries, especially when it comes to the last two STEM subfields. For instance, the share of students enrolled in tertiary ICT programmes ranges from 8.8% in Italy to 37.7% in Luxembourg.

The EU average has decreased by 0.7 percentage points during the last decade. 13 EU countries recorded a decrease in the share of STEM enrolment at tertiary level – greater than 5 percentage points in Poland (-5.6) and in Malta (-7.6), suggesting a possible drop in interest among students in STEM compared to other fields. Public interest in STEM fields and awareness of shortages of STEM specialists has not yet translated into higher number of students; the share of STEM enrolment at tertiary level even dropped 0.2 percentage points between 2022 and 2023, suggesting a need for improving attractiveness of STEM fields among students.

At doctorate level, nearly four in ten (39.9%) students are enrolled in STEM fields. One in five (20.1%) doctorate students is enrolled in ‘natural sciences, mathematics, and statistics’ and 16.0% in ‘engineering, manufacturing and construction’. However, only a small share (3.8%) is enrolled in ICT. This rate is 1.2 percentage point below the proposed 2030 EU-level target of at least 5%. It increased by 0.5 percentage points between 2015 and 2023. In absolute terms, the number of doctorate students enrolled in ICT increased by 32.4% during that period. This rise was much higher than for the other two STEM fields. The share of doctoral students enrolled in ICT is below 2% in Belgium, Croatia and Malta while exceeding 10% in Luxembourg, (23.1%) and Estonia (10.9%).

Figure 5 shows that only four other countries have reached the value proposed for the EU-level target.

1.2.2. Drivers of study choice

Many factors drive students’ choice to pursue STEM education. At individual level, they span from early life experiences to broader career considerations. Genuine curiosity and enjoyment in STEM topics from an early age is fundamental to nurture STEM interest. Experiences during primary and secondary education are critical (see Box 1). Mathematics self-efficacy, defined as an individual’s confidence in their ability to successfully perform specific mathematics tasks or activities, has been identified as one of the most important drivers of interest in STEM careers.

Family background plays a crucial role, too. Higher levels of ‘science capital’ – which includes components like parental scientific knowledge, family discussions about science, and engagement in science-related activities outside of school – are strongly associated with greater early STEM engagement. Moreover, having at least one parent working in a STEM-related occupation is correlated with a higher probability of performing better in mathematics, which is also a driver of interest in STEM careers. This underscores, on the one hand, how family resources and environment contribute significantly to early STEM engagement, with disparities in ‘science capital’ often reflecting broader socioeconomic inequalities; on the other hand, it highlights the relevant role that school systems may have in offsetting for socio-economic disparities and in fostering interest in STEM.

Educational choices are also shaped by what students value in their future careers. This encompasses more than just financial compensation; it reflects long-term aspirations regarding work content, impact and personal fulfilment, developed from early education through adolescence. Evidence shows that STEM careers are perceived as less people-oriented, less geared towards society and less creative than non-STEM careers. These perceptions affect the level of interest in pursuing a career in STEM.

In addition, study choices are taken within a complex system of institutional factors that vary significantly across the EU. University admission policies, funding models, availability of financial aid for students, labour market needs and conditions all affect study choice. Funding is particularly complex for STEM fields, which are often more costly to deliver than other disciplines, due to specialised infrastructure, equipment requirements and lower student-staff ratios for laboratory work. When funding formulas fail to adequately reflect these higher costs, it can lead to education institutions limiting enrolment growth in high-demand STEM fields despite the need.

Lastly, another key system-level driver of study choice but also of the overall pool of potential entrants into STEM higher education is the permeability between VET programmes and tertiary programmes (see Section 5.2). VET systems across the EU differ significantly. In some countries, VET focuses on direct job entry with limited or complex university routes, while others offer clearer transitions through bridging programmes, exams, and recognition of prior learning. These transitions affect whether individuals who start with vocational training in a STEM field can pursue STEM studies later in higher education. Policy action can reduce any transitional barriers and administrative hurdles, while promoting options for continued learning.

1.2.3. Gender gaps in STEM

To tackle STEM labour shortages, each 2030 EU-level STEM target proposed as part of the Union of Skills also calls for an increase in the number of female enrolments in STEM in initial medium-level VET, and at tertiary level, and in ICT at doctorate level.

In medium-level VET, female students are severely under-represented in STEM fields. Fewer than one in six students (15.4%) is female, compared to a proposed 2030 EU-level target of at least one in four (Figure 6). This rate decreased 0.6 percentage points between 2020 and 2023. Only Romania (36.4%) and Bulgaria (27.4%) reached the proposed EU-level target value. By contrast, fewer than one in ten are studying VET STEM fields in Cyprus (8.3%), Ireland (9.0%), Lithuania (9.0%) and Germany (9.5%). The underrepresentation of female students in STEM is much larger than in medium-level VET overall, where on average 44.2% of students in the EU are female. The small STEM subfield in VET of ‘natural sciences, mathematics and statistics’ enjoys a more favourable gender balance, with women accounting for 45.5% of students. However, the under-representation of women is more pronounced in the other two STEM subfields, with the rate of female students dropping to 14.6% in ‘engineering, manufacturing and construction’ and to 14.0% in ICT.

Although the share of women enrolled in tertiary education exceeds that of men, women are under-represented in STEM. They make up one third (32.2%)of enrolled STEM students in tertiary education. This rate is 7.8 percentage points below the proposed 2030 EU-level target of at least two female students out of every five students (40%), However, this rose by 1.3 percentage points between 2017 and 2023. The rate ranges from 25.4% in Hungary to 37.7% in Sweden. As, in medium-level VET, the female underrepresentation is more severe in certain STEM subfields. Women only account for 20.3% of tertiary students enrolled in ICT, which is the lowest rate of all education fields (STEM and non-STEM), and 27.7% of those studying ‘engineering, manufacturing and construction’. By comparison, the field of ‘natural sciences, mathematics and statistics’ is much more gender balanced: women constitute 51.5% of students enrolled.

At doctoral level, only 38.0% of STEM students are women. The rate is higher in ‘natural sciences, mathematics and statistics’ (46.0%), but drops to 31.2% in ‘engineering, manufacturing and construction’ and to 24.3% in ICT. On average, the EU is about 9 percentage points away from the proposed 2030 EU-level target of at least one in three ICT students at doctoral level being female. Most EU countries have rates below 30% and only five have already reached the proposed EU-level target value. However, the trend over time is positive. Across the EU, the female share in ICT at doctoral level jumped 2.2 percentage points since 2017, the highest increase among all the broad fields of education.

The gender gaps in STEM result from deeply rooted family, school, social and cultural factors that are evident well before the time of enrolment. Although school achievement may have an impact on study choice, differences in school outcomes between girls and boys only moderately explain the STEM gender gaps in higher education and on the labour market. Even high-achieving girls are often held back by other factors such as a lower self-confidence and self-efficacy in STEM subjects.

Girls’ lack of confidence in their abilities in mathematics and science and their resultant low expectations of working in STEM careers could also be due to an absence of role models. The paucity of women scientists means that young girls have little in the way of tangible evidence to disprove the stereotypical notion that mathematics and science are somehow more ‘male’ disciplines.

Also relevant is thus the female friendliness of STEM educational environments and the extent to which gender stereotypes – to whom girls are exposed from a very young age - about the roles that men and women should play in society and in the economic sphere are salient. Women may be discouraged from choosing STEM careers because of the perception of STEM professions being more ‘things-oriented’ as women tend to endorse goals to help and work with people more than men. Women’s greater preference for work that has communal goals might explain why female enrolment rates are higher in some STEM subfields such as biology, and lower in ICT subfield, which are perceived as emphasising technical performance and individual achievement. At doctoral level, a perceived masculine orientation of STEM academic work may discourage women from continuing to practice STEM beyond a master’s degree. Particularly intense lab or field work may be incompatible with family caring duties which tend to fall to women.

The existence of these gender stereotypes at home are carried forward in the classroom by teachers. They are important contributors to gendered stereotypes and can have a negative influence on girls’ mathematics performance. Teacher bias (favouring boys) is a major factor in students’ performance and choice of field of study. All these factors work cumulatively and affect women as they progress through school and higher education and onto the labour market, deterring women from enrolling in STEM or impacting female preferences for some STEM fields.