Education and Training Monitor 2024

1. Learning for sustainability

Promoting learning for sustainability is a national priority. The second Environmental Education and Awareness Plan 2023-2025 covers all levels of education and is implemented by the Ministry of Education and Research and the Ministry of Climate. It aims to strengthen cooperation between education providers of formal learning and non-formal learning by developing an environmental education network (Ministry of Climate, 2023). Additionally, measures under the national recovery and resilience plan support green skills in vocational education and training (VET) and adult education to improve workers’ knowledge and skills in the green economy.

Estonia already incorporated learning for sustainability into the national curriculum in 2002, as one of the first EU countries. Estonia’s holistic approach not only refers to skills and knowledge, but also to attitudes and values, covering environmental, social and economic issues. In preschool, the subject ‘Me and the environment’ is part of the curriculum (Government of Estonia, 2008). In basic and secondary schools, learning for sustainability is a cross-cutting theme, based on the sustainability competences defined in the EU GreenComp framework (Government of Estonia, 2011a & 2011b; European Commission, 2022a). Vocational curricula also include green competences and sustainability principles to support the acquisition of skills needed for the green transition in VET (Cedefop, 2024a). At tertiary level, the higher education standard was updated to include a learning outcome on sustainability that has to be taken into account in all Bachelor programmes: to act as a professional and citizen in ways that support environmental and social sustainability (Riigi Teataja, 2024). Higher education institutions also promote learning for sustainability through initiatives such as subject-specific courses or micro-credentials.

While students’ environmental awareness has improved, differences based on gender and language of instruction persist. According to the 2022 International Civic and Citizenship Education Study (ICCS), Estonia ranks fourth among the participating EU countries in terms of knowledge of sustainable development, with a score of 522.9 vs EU-17 506.7¹. Compared to the 2016 ICCS survey, young Estonians are becoming more concerned about global environmental threats (Schulz et al., 2023). However, a recent national pilot survey confirmed that there is greater environmental awareness among girls (gender gap of 23 pps) and Estonian-speaking students (Turu-uuringute AS, 2023).

Full implementation of learning for sustainability is challenged by the lack of qualified and trained teachers. Shortages of qualified teachers are acute, especially in science, and science literacy, crucial for learning for sustainability, which is deteriorating among students (OECD, 2023a). The coverage of sustainability in initial teacher education depends on the curriculum: it is more prominent in class teachers’ and science teachers’ programmes, and less prominent for teachers of other subjects. In addition, sustainability education is part of in-service training, mainly organised by the Estonian Environmental Education Association (EKHÜ, 2024a). The national VET team, meanwhile, helps improve the green competences of VET teachers, school leaders and school teams². It contributes to the implementation of EU initiatives and tools within the European network of VET experts, for example via green awareness webinars funded by Erasmus+ in 2022 for VET providers, employers and policymakers (Cedefop, 2024a). The Environmental Education and Awareness Action Plan supports the training of teachers and school leaders on topics like the green transition, the circular economy, biodiversity and outdoor learning, as well as the development of interdisciplinary teaching materials, self-assessment methodologies and community-based initiatives (European Commission, 2024). More than half of teachers have already participated in at least one training course on environmental sustainability (57.1% vs EU-17 53%³) (Schulz et al., 2023).

Implementation of learning for sustainability is monitored at national and school level. National monitoring relies mainly on the evaluation of the Environmental Education and Awareness Action Plan (Ministry of Climate, 2023) and an additional education-related target set in the state budget strategy ⁴ (Ministry of Climate, 2024). The quality of environmental education study programmes has been assessed by the Estonian Environmental Education Association since 2020 (EKHÜ, 2024b – see Box 1), and a pilot survey of pupils’ environmental awareness was recently carried out for the Ministry of Climate (Turu-uuringute AS, 2023). Schools can use a self-assessment tool to monitor their performance.

2. Early childhood education and care

While participation in formal childcare is increasing, participation in early childhood education and care (ECEC) for children between 3 and the starting age of compulsory education remained stable. More than one third of children under 3 was enrolled in formal childcare in 2023 (37.8% vs EU 37.5%) ⁵, approaching the national Barcelona target of 40.5%. Participation in ECEC of children between 3 and the starting age of compulsory education (7 years) has been stable in the last 5 years. It stood at 91.9% in 2022, somewhat below the EU average of 93.1% and the EU-level target of 96% by 2030⁶.

Shortages of kindergarten places remain an issue, while there is an obligation to provide childcare from 18 months on. In 2023, 68 300 children were enrolled in 560 preschool institutions ⁷, most of which are public (only 64 private institutions ⁸). Capacity shortages persist, especially in large fast-growing urban areas, where municipalities struggle to meet increasing needs despite the creation of additional places, supported in particular by the cohesion policy funds for 2014-2020 (CentAR, 2023). Estonia guarantees a place in ECEC for each child from 18 months on, right after the end of childcare leave (European Commission, 2023a).

The transition to Estonian-language education is set to begin in kindergartens in September 2024, challenging the availability of professionals who meet the language requirements. In 2022/23, nearly 69 000 children participated in ECEC in Estonia, 81% of whom have Estonian as a language of instruction, 13% have Russian, and nearly 6% attend language immersion groups (European Commission, 2023b). As of September 2024, all pre-primary education activities will be carried out only in Estonian to ensure that children with a different mother tongue reach a sufficient level of language proficiency in Estonian. This transition may lead to shortages of ECEC professionals. The transitioning kindergartens received special support for learning resources (õppevara), institutional support in mapping training needs and a training and motivation programme to help kindergarten staff meet the language requirements. Salary top-ups are provided in regions where shortages of qualified teachers and support specialists are the most acute (Ministry of Education and Research, 2024a).

3. School education

While Estonia still ranks top among EU countries in basic skills, there has been a moderate decline over the last decade. The 2022 OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) results show that the proportion of low-achieving pupils has remained among the lowest in the EU. Estonia is the only country that meets the EU level target in all three areas (only 15% of pupils have low performance in maths, 13.8% in reading and 10.1% in science). Similar to other EU countries, underachievement has grown over the past decade (+4.5 pps in mathematics, +4.7 pps in reading and +5.1 pps in science), although the increase was smaller than the EU average (+7.4 pps, +8.2 pps and +7.4 pps respectively). Estonia also has one of the highest shares of top performers, well above the EU average, but with a slight deterioration since 2012 (OECD, 2023b). The high overall performance can be linked to a coherent and long-term combination of competence-based curriculum and evaluation reforms, cross-curricular teaching methods and greater autonomy of schools and teachers, as also reflected in the latest changes of the national curriculum implemented as of September 2024. Early digitalisation of the education system has contributed to high-level digital literacy of teachers and above-average reading skills and trust in autonomous learning with digital devices of pupils, minimising the potential learning losses of the pandemic (European Commission, 2022b).

The widening socio-economic gap risks increasing educational inequalities in addition to other gaps based on gender, location or language of instruction. Estonia remains the country with the smallest socio-economic gap in underachievement in mathematics (18.4 pps vs EU 37.2 pps). However, this gap has widened significantly compared to 2018 due to the increase in underperformance among disadvantaged pupils (+ 8.5 pps), even though they show resilience by making up a relatively high share of top performers (4.1 % vs 1.8 % at EU level). In mathematics, boys are over-represented among top-achieving pupils, just like across the EU, while girls perform better in reading. In reading and science, boys are more likely to underachieve, but the gender gap is the lowest in the EU in science (2.5 pps) and below the average in reading (7.6 pps vs 8.9 pps at EU level). While average pupil performance has decreased both in urban and rural areas, the rural-urban performance gap in favour of urban areas has widened slightly. Furthermore, Estonian language schools perform better than Russian-speaking schools, but the performance gap has narrowed since 2018, especially in reading, due to the deteriorating performance of Estonian-speaking pupils (Tire et al., 2023).

Figure 1: The socio-economic gap among low-achieving students in mathematics, PISA 2012-2022

The school climate has an impact on educational results. Bullying happens frequently to 1 in 4 students (25.7%), one of the highest shares in the EU, with boys and pupils in Russian-language schools more likely to be affected (Tire et al., 2023). Exposure to bullying is linked to a drop of 11 score points in mathematics. However, around 3 in 4 students feel a strong sense of belonging to school (77.7%), which is associated with an increase of 21 score points in mathematics. The sense of belonging is higher among boys and pupils in Estonian-speaking schools and pupils who feel more supported by their families. In addition, schools effectively promote self-directed learning and a growth mindset, which sees their pupils performing the best in creative thinking in the EU (OECD, 2024).

Persistent teacher shortages constitute a risk to the quality of education. Compared to 2018, the 2022 PISA survey shows a significant increase in the number of pupils who study in schools where school leaders perceive the lack of teachers (73% vs 44% in 2018) or qualified teachers (51% vs 33% in 2018) as an obstacle to teaching. Shortages remain particularly severe in science and mathematics and for support specialists. The shortages of fully qualified teachers ⁹ are exacerbated by an ageing teacher population ¹⁰, a high turnover rate of entry-level teachers¹¹ and the new language requirements for the transition to Estonian-language education¹² (Ministry of Education and Research, 2023a). A recent audit confirmed this negative trend, warning that the share of qualified teachers is moving away from the 2026 target of 90% (National Audit Office, 2024). Meanwhile, 2 300 teacher training graduates do not work as teachers, constituting a teacher reserve that could reduce the shortage of qualified teachers (Foresight Centre, 2024)¹³. In early 2024, a nationwide teacher strike resulted in a 6.6% salary increase and the launch of negotiations with representatives of teachers and their employers for a 2025-2027 education agreement to improve working conditions, training and career progression. This includes a four-stage career model and corresponding salary rates to reach the teachers’ salary target of 120% of the national average salary by 2027 (Ministry of Education and Research, 2024b).

The transition to Estonian-language education will be rolled out gradually starting in 2024-2025 with the first and fourth grades. The new language qualification requirements are expected to be met by 1 August 2024, requiring the retraining of those currently teaching in Russian, including support specialists. In early 2024, more than half of the 1 800 kindergarten and school teachers who did not yet have the required language skills were attending language courses (Ministry of Education and Research, 2024c). The Ministry of Education opened up 1 000 additional places in language courses, supported by the EU Structural Funds, organised another language examination in spring, and developed a programme targeting school leaders (Ministry of Education and Research, 2024d).

Estonia aims to increase the age of compulsory learning to further address the problem of early school leaving. Almost 1 in 10 young people leave education and training early, and more boys than girls do so (11.4% vs 8% in 2023)¹⁴. Estonia is around the EU average, with early school leaving having improved compared to the previous year, particularly for boys. But the problem persists, especially in rural areas (12.1%¹⁵). To ease skills shortages, the Ministry of Education proposed legislative amendments in May 2024 to replace the obligation to attend school with a more general learning obligation, taking into account non-formal learning, and to raise this obligation from 17 to 18 years, unless vocational or secondary education is completed before (Kallas, 2024). This reform aims to ensure that less than 5% of pupils leave education and training early and that all young people acquire upper secondary education or vocational skills. It is expected to enter into force for pupils going to the 9th grade in the academic year 2025/2026 (when they are around 15) (Ministry of Education and Research, 2024e).

4. Vocational education and training

The attractiveness of vocational education and training (VET) in Estonia has remained stable over the last few years. In 2022, 44.6% of pupils in medium-level education attend vocational programmes (52.4% in the EU)¹⁶. Work-based learning in VET is extensive (83.7% of recent graduates in 2023), and the employment rate of recent VET graduates is above the EU average (84.6% in 2023, compared to 81% EU-wide)¹⁷.

Estonia is implementing EU guidelines in VET, especially by developing work-based learning. 2023 was the first year of implementation of the national plan for the Council Recommendation on VET, including adopting several measures as well as planning legislative changes. In 2023, the VET and higher education development programme PRÕM+, co-financed by the European Social Fund Plus (ESF+), was adopted by the Ministry of Education and Research. It aims to align VET with societal needs by supporting traineeships and work-based learning, including training courses, seminars and counselling to VET providers. At least 30% of the work-based learning training places target young people up to the age of 26 with no professional qualifications.

Flexible learning pathways were introduced in 2023 at upper secondary education level to make VET more attractive. A key objective of the VET reform is to better integrate vocational education with other education levels by bridging formal and non-formal education as well as connecting general, vocational and applied higher education. The reform involves new curricula that prioritise general competencies, offering vocational secondary education as a viable alternative to gymnasium education (which prepares pupils for university entrance) and implementing measures such as career counselling and flexible study arrangements to retain students and reduce dropout rates. To incorporate more general education content, vocational upper secondary programmes will be extended from 3 years to 3.5‑4 years. Stakeholder engagement seminars for updating vocational upper secondary curricula started in 2023 (Cedefop, 2024b).

Estonia is boosting information and communication technology (ICT) and engineering study fields in VET. With the support of the ESF+, it launched a strategic initiative in 2023, the IT and Engineering Academies, worth EUR 18 million. They are set up to improve and update VET programmes, modernise learning environments with technological solutions and software, and promote IT and engineering education. They also aim to increase female participation (Cedefop, 2024b). VET centres will introduce mentoring systems to help lower early dropout rates.

5. Higher education

Despite relatively high tertiary educational attainment, gender disparities persist. In 2023, 43.5% of people between 25 and 34 held a university degree, around the EU average of 43.1% and slightly below the EU-level target of 45%¹⁸. This relatively high tertiary educational attainment rate has grown at a slower pace over the past decade (+2.9 pps since 2013) compared to other EU countries (EU average +8 pps). Women are much more likely to hold a university degree than men: in 2023, 56% of women aged 25-34 held a higher education degree, whereas only 31.8% of men did, leading to the highest gender gap within the EU (24.2 pps vs EU average 11.2 pps)¹⁹. This has widened slightly over the past decade (+1.9 pps) (see Figure 2).

Figure 2: Gender gap in tertiary educational attainment rate, 2013-2023

The number of dropouts from higher education remains relatively high, partly related to the cost of living and labour demand. In 2022, more than 1 in 7 higher education students left tertiary education in the first year of study (15.1%), reversing the declining trend of previous years, while remaining within the national target for 2022 (16.4%) (Ministry of Education and Research, 2023a). The high dropout rate is potentially linked to students’ exposure to both high living costs and labour demand. Compared to other countries, students in Estonia are more likely to work during their studies to cover living costs (Haugas et al., 2023)²⁰.

While the number of international students is falling, the internationalisation of higher education remains a priority. In 2022, 14.1% of Estonian higher education graduates either studied abroad (4.2%) or graduated abroad (9.9%) – above the EU average (10.9%²¹), but still below the EU-level target set for 2030 (23%). And 15.3% of higher education graduates were inward degree mobile (i.e. they had obtained their upper secondary school diploma in a country other than Estonia) (EU 8.7%). Looking at international student flows, the OECD found that the number of permits issued to international students in Estonia is still lower than before the COVID pandemic, while it recovered in most OECD countries (OECD, 2023c). The geopolitical and economic consequences of Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine may explain this recent downward trend. Universities also point to the end of the Dora+ programme supporting the internationalisation of higher education as well as the Estonian migration and visa policy (Estonian Rectors’ Conference of Universities of Applied Sciences, 2024). To increase the international visibility and competitiveness of higher education, Estonia continues to mobilise EU cohesion funds, including by further supporting the Study in Estonia activities (Ministry of Education and Research, 2023b). In addition to mobility (studying abroad) through Erasmus+, Estonia targets learning mobility with neighbouring countries, notably through the Nordic/Baltic regional programme ‘Nordplus’ (European Commission, 2023c) and the entry into force of an agreement between Benelux and the Baltic States in May 2024 on automatic recognition of higher education qualifications (Ministry of Education and Research, 2024f).

6. Adult learning

In the past decade, more and more adults have participated in learning activities. In 2022, adult participation in education and training (in the 12 months prior to the survey) was higher than the EU average in the Adult Education Survey (41.8% vs EU 39.5%)²². Estonia has pledged to contribute to the EU headline target – the aim is for 52.3% of adults to participate in learning every year by 2030.

Estonia is making learning pathways more flexible to better reach out to underrepresented groups. The rise in varied and flexible learning and career pathways gives different groups in society new opportunities to participate in flexible learning. Efforts are being made to recognise skills acquired in different contexts and make this transparent for learners, employers and other specialists through a digital skills profile tool, the ‘Skills Compass’ (Oskuste kompass). Micro-credentials, referred to as 'micro-qualifications' in Estonia, are seen as a flexible tool for adult learners to gain partial or full qualifications. To regulate this emerging field and extend the micro-qualifications system to vocational education and adult training institutions, amendments to the Adult Education Act were adopted by the government in July 2024. These amendments, expected to enter into force in 2025, include the definition of micro-qualifications, principles of provision and a quality assurance mechanism (Ministry of Education and Research, 2024g).

EU funds provide considerable support and access to learning opportunities. Large-scale programmes supported by EU funds are expected to actively shape the development of adult learning opportunities over the coming years. This includes a programme to widen adult learning opportunities in the Ida-Virumaa region, co-financed by the Just Transition Fund. With an investment of EUR 31 million, the aim is to support the region’s workforce, which is impacted by the green transition and the reduction of the oil shale industry, by expanding retraining and further education options in the region (Ministry of Education, 2023c). In addition, an ESF+ supported programme was approved in 2023 to widen adult learning opportunities, including supporting the development of both professional and general skills with EUR 70 million (Ministry of Education, 2023d).