Country report

1. STEM education

Science technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) studies attract a high number of students in Greece. In 2023, the share of tertiary students enrolled in STEM programmes stood at 33.7% (vs EU: 26.9%), slightly higher than the proposed EU level 2030 target of 32%. Most STEM tertiary students are in engineering, manufacturing and construction (62% vs EU: 54.6%) and in natural sciences, mathematics and statistics being around the EU average (25.8% vs EU: 25.1%). To meet increasing labour market demand driven by the expansion of the economy in the country’s post-financial crisis period (European Commission, 2025), and persisting brain drain, there is a need to boost the number of students enrolled in STEM programmes (Xirogiannis, G., 2023).

There is a growing demand for ICT specialists. Skills shortages persist in the labour market and demand is particularly high for roles related to software development, data analysis, cybersecurity, and AI professionals (Xirogiannis, G., 2023). However, enrolments in ICT programmes remain low, standing at 12.1% (vs EU: 20.3%). Addressing shortages could enhance productivity, innovation and the green and digital transition. The national 2020-2025 digital transformation strategy (Hellenic Republic, 2020) highlights the need for advanced digital skills and emphasises the role of ICT specialists in driving this transformation. The country’s digitalisation occurs also through EU funding under the EU Recovery and Resilience Facility (RRF), which includes a major investment in education called ‘the digital transformation of education’. The development of a monitoring and evaluation framework for digital education aim to assess the relevant investments versus the educational outcomes of students. In 2023, the number of ICT PhD students out of all PhD students was the same as the EU average (3.8%, proposed EU level 2030 target 5%). In 2023, 27.5% of graduates were awarded a STEM degree (vs EU: 25.2%).

Despite the absence of an overarching STEM strategy, a broad set of initiatives promote STEM education at all levels. Greece identified green and digital skills as part of its long-term strategy for economic recovery and innovation. In the recent years, skills are being enhanced with the introduction of programmes in the Greek education system based on exploratory learning, linking scientific knowledge with problem solving processes and students’ everyday lives (Goltsiou, A., Sofianopoulou, C., 2022). A best practice is the implementation of the Skills Labs (European Commission, 2023a) in schools, introducing STEM teaching from an early age to increase students’ interest. In higher education, the acquisition of STEM skills is promoted by the ‘Strategy for Excellence in Universities and Innovation’ supported by the RRF. It aims at upgrading research and educational infrastructure in universities of applied sciences and technology, financing industrial PhD programmes and providing funding to researchers. In addition, the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) co-finances infrastructure such as laboratories and digital equipment.

Female participation in STEM at tertiary level stands at the EU average but is below the proposed EU level 2030 targets. There are efforts to boost female participation in STEM. In 2023, among all STEM tertiary students, 32.7% were women which is in line with the EU average (EU: 32.2%) but below the proposed target of 40%. In ICT subjects, Greece is among the top five EU countries, with 28.9% of female participation (vs EU: 20.3%). Also, out of all PhD students enrolled in ICT, 27.1% were women, which in line with the EU average 24.3%, but lower than the proposed target of 33%. There are targeted career counselling actions and programmes for girls in secondary education about gender stereotypes and their impact on career choices, developed by the Institute of Educational Policy such as ‘Gender and Occupation’ and ‘Empower’. The latter is supported by Erasmus+ aiming at encouraging women participation in ICT through empowering teachers and students to engage in strong female role models. In addition, a key initiative to increase female participation in STEM and attract women to STEM professions that are in high demand, such as artificial intelligence (AI) and advanced technology sectors, is the creation of the ‘Women’s Innovation Centre’.

Greece is reinforcing STEM in vocational education and training. In 2023, the share of learners enrolled in medium-level VET in STEM fields stood below the EU average (30.9% vs EU: 36.3%) and fell short of the proposed EU-wide target by 2030 (at least 45%). In addition, only one in eight learners is a woman (12.4% vs EU: 15.4% with a proposed target of at least 25% by 2030). Some initiatives exist to improve gender balance in STEM, such as the ‘Women in Tech’ programme from the Greek public employment service (ΔΥΠΑ), which supports unemployed women aged 25-45 develop ICT skills. In addition, the 2022-2024 strategic plan for vocational education and training in Greece highlights the importance in STEM (Cedefop, & ReferNet, 2025a).

2. Early childhood education and care

Greece continues to increase participation in early childhood education and care (ECEC). In 2019, Greece ranked last among EU Member States in terms of enrolment rate with a rate of 68.8%, far below the 2019 EU average of 92.9% and the 2030 EU-level target of 96%. However, a lack of more recent data makes monitoring progress difficult (European Commission, 2024b & Eurostat). Greece has taken measures to improve access to quality ECEC (European Commission, 2023a) and the ERDF co-finances new capacities. Policy measures were introduced in 2024/2025 to support children from vulnerable groups, including access for all children to all-day ECEC. A comprehensive intervention programme was developed in 2024 to promote inclusion through coordination across the competent ministries. In addition, parallel support in classrooms for children with special educational needs have been progressively expanded. An additional number of special education teachers were also recruited in kindergartens through co-financing under EU cohesion policy funds. In addition, the RRF supports a pilot programme in early interventions for children with disabilities aiming at increasing the participation rate and ensure their inclusion.

The country struggles to meet the Barcelona target for participation in formal childcare for children under three. In 2024, 28.8% of Greek children aged 0-3 attended ECEC (EU: 39.3%) versus the national Barcelona target of 42.8% by 2030. This requires an increase of 13.3 pps compared to the 2017-2021 average of 29.5%. The rate is particularly low for children at risk of poverty or social exclusion (19.8% in 2023 vs EU: 25.2%). Better access to ECEC is essential in laying the foundations for skills development and it has been found to be particularly beneficial for disadvantaged children. In line with this, the Council of the EU called on Greece to expand formal early childhood care and education (Council of the EU, 2025). One of OECD key recommendations for Greece is to improve access to childcare by shifting public spending from birth grants towards childcare facilities (OECD, 2024a). The EU cohesion policy funds subsidise participation in formal childcare for children under three.

3. School education and basic skills

Greece has one of the lowest rates of early leavers from education and training in the EU. In 2024, only 3% of students aged 18-24 had left school completing only lower secondary school education or less (EU: 9.3%). This represents a sharp drop of 4.9 pps (EU: -1.9 pps) during the last decade. Given this, the Greek ELET rate is well below the EU-level target of less than 9%. The overall drop is due to the significant decrease in rural areas of 7.2 pps since 2015 (in 2024: 6.1% vs EU average 10.2%). In cities, the rate of 1.5% is particularly low compared to the EU average of 8.2%. However, geographical imbalances are prevalent as in certain regions, such as in the region of Peloponnese, early school leaving is up to four times higher than in the most populated region of Attica which includes the capital, Athens.

The low level of basic skills including digital skills remain a key challenge. In the 2022 OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), the rates of underachievement of 15-year-olds are among the highest in the EU (European Commission, 2024b). Almost half of mathematics students (47% vs EU: 29.5%) do not reach the minimum proficiency level, hindering full participation in society and succeeding in the labour market. Underachievement in mathematics has grown over the entire socio-economic distribution since 2018. Only 7.1% of disadvantaged students perform well (level 4 or above in the PISA scale) in at least on the domains, a much lower share than in the EU average (16.3%). Among advantaged students, this share is 35%, (vs EU: 59%). Greece is also significantly lagging behind in terms of digital skills, with 60% of eighth-graders not reaching the basic level (vs EU: 43% and 2030 EU-level target 15%) (European Commission, 2023b). In Greece, the share of top performing students in all three subjects tested by PISA is also among the lowest in the EU. Only 2% of young Greeks demonstrated advanced skills in mathematics (EU: 7.9%), 2% in reading (EU: 6.5%) and 1.5% in sciences (EU: 6.9%). These major weaknesses in basic skills development reveal structural challenges for the education system and pose a risk for Greece’s future labour and skills supply to master the twin transition (European Commission, 2024b). In this context, in 2025, the Council of the EU called on Greece to improve its educational outcomes by enhancing continuous professional development for teachers focused on competence-based approaches and aligning student assessment to them, improving school autonomy, and expanding teacher evaluation (Council of the EU, 2025). However, efforts are underway to improve quality and achieve inclusive education and equity (European Commission, 2022). A framework for inclusive education was designed through a relevant TSI project and numerous programmes are being implemented across all levels of education and vocational training (European Commission, 2022). In addition, the establishment of new model and experimental schools notably since the school year 2021/2022 focuses on an accessible education for all. The RRF investment ‘digital transformation and digitalisation of education’ aims at tackling the digital divide. Also, a programme of system-level evaluation in Greek language and mathematics aims to assess the implementation of the curricula and the learning outcomes of pupils (European Commission, 2022).

Greece values civic education and embedded it in the curricula. Greece is one of the EU countries with the highest number of civic education course hours, where the subject is compulsory and is taught in all levels of general education (European Commission, 2018). In parallel, the programme Active Citizen Actions (IEP, 2024) was incorporated into the teaching of subjects of all grades in primary and secondary general education (European Commission, 2024). Its aim is to enhance students’ skills in critical thinking, collaboration, and social responsibility, and raise awareness among them about the creation of a sustainable society based on social justice, and environmental protection. The programme incorporates the 17 United Nations’ sustainable development goals, through interdisciplinary projects and participatory learning. It includes actions within the school community, the local community, at national or international level, and in the digital world.

4. Vocational education and training

Greece focuses on aligning VET to the labour market needs. In 2024, 69.5% of recent VET graduates were in employment, standing below the EU average (80.0%) but on an upwards trend in the recent years. Greece is developing new training guides and educational materials for all 130 specialisations provided by higher vocational training schools (ΣAEK), formerly known as vocational training institutes (IEK). The objective is to modernise the VET system by aligning it with labour market needs and international best practices. The National Organisation for the Certification of Qualifications and Vocational Guidance (EOPPEP) played a key role in producing the training guides. EOPPEP provided 134 certified occupational profiles to ensure that vocational education curricula align with labour market demands and professional standards. A structured process for content updates and quality assurance was established. Continuous monitoring and periodic revisions are key to ensuring the relevance and effectiveness of training materials (Cedefop, & ReferNet, 2025b).

Greece introduces arrangements for digital education, career guidance and support measures for remote areas. In 2024, Law 5128/2024 introduced major reforms to modernise VET focusing on digital transformation by establishing a digital educational portal and tutoring service, aiming to provide interactive learning materials and distance education tools. Key reforms also include the development of a digital career orientation platform to support learners in making informed career choices. In addition, the law aims to improve access to education in remote areas and to boost the recognition of professional qualifications through the ‘e-PROFESSIONAL’ platform (Cedefop, & ReferNet, 2025c). In parallel, there are substantial reforms and investments in VET supported by the RRF (European Commission, 2024).

Very few VET graduates have experienced work-based learning. In 2024, only 15.0% of recent VET graduates had experienced work-based learning far below the EU average of 65.2%. Greece is strengthening work-based learning (WBL) as a mean to improve youth employability and better align skills with labour market needs. Key initiatives include the Apprenticeship Year for vocational upper secondary school (EPAL) graduates, and the apprenticeship schools (EPAS) of PES (ΔΥΠΑ), which combines school-based learning with paid on-the-job training, and expanded practical training opportunities in post-secondary VET (ΣΑEK). These efforts are supported by EU funding and aligned with European frameworks like the European Qualification’s Framework. Current policy focuses on scaling up employer participation, particularly among small and medium enterprises, improving quality assurance of placements, improving career guidance, and addressing the lack of attractiveness of VET. Despite challenges, Greece is working to make WBL a core element of a more responsive and inclusive education system.

5. Tertiary education

Greece almost reaches the EU-level target for 2030 in tertiary educational attainment. In 2024, 44.5% of Greeks aged 25-34 held a tertiary education degree, slightly above the EU average of 44.2% and close to the EU-level target for 2030, 45%. This represents an increase of 4.1 pps over the last decade (vs an average EU increase of 7.7 pps). The gender gap in favour of women is high at 16.5 pps (vs EU: 11.2 pps). The employment rates of recent tertiary graduates (20-34-year-olds) increased substantially during the last decade by 29.1 pps to 79% vs EU: 86.7%. This is, however, still among the lowest level in the EU.

Reforms are being implemented to strengthen quality in universities and increase the links with industry. Two laws aim at increasing quality, strengthening and simplifying the recognition procedures. They include measures to (i) improve the governance of the higher education institutions (European Commission, 2023); (ii) increase excellence in teaching; (iii) promote interdisciplinary learning; and (iv) strengthen mobility. Greece was the last Member State to ratify the Lisbon Recognition Convention in 2024 (DOATAP, 2025). Under the RRF a key reform is being supported, ‘Strategy for Excellence in Universities and Innovation’ aiming at also strengthening links between universities, research bodies and industry. The development of industrial doctoral schemes has been introduced by law into the Greek higher education system (European Commission, 2022). In addition, the ERDF co-finances investments in tertiary education supporting quality and ensuring access also for persons with disabilities or special educational needs.

Greece has now established a structural national graduate tracking system, through its active participation in the European Graduate Tracking Initiative. The Eurograduate 2022 country report constitutes a landmark achievement for Greece (Eurograduate country report, 2022), reinforcing the link between higher education and labour market. The employment status of Greek graduates has improved for the younger cohort (±90% of graduates in fields like business, health, and education), with better job security, especially for young people holding a Bachelor level. Also, public sector employment is important, especially for ISCED 7 graduates and for female graduates. However, self-employment is relatively rare among Greek graduates, representing only 17%. Greece has one of the highest student populations among EU countries (8.07% of Greece’s total population vs EU: 4.07%). However, graduation rates are relatively low leading to concerns about efficiency in the system.

Delays in the completion of studies is a complex and long-standing phenomenon in Greece. Enrolment in higher education (HE) grew by 21% between 2014 and 2023 in absolute numbers despite the demographic decline (European Commission, 2023a & IOBE, 2022. However, according to the Hellenic Authority for Higher Education (HAHE)) only 9.6% of students in Greece complete their degree on time. This is the lowest rate in the EU (EU average 23.8%) (HAHE, 2023; European Commission, 2020; EY Greece & ELTRUN, 2024). According to a study by HAHE, only 52% of students enrolled in higher education are considered as being active students within the maximum study period set by law. The main reasons for student disengagement are, inadequate preparation at school level in a context of high expectations, the absence of consistent career orientation in schools, the under discussion university entrance system and lack of educational support and understaffing in universities (Karalis et al., 2024). New legislation regarding the phasing out of the ‘eternal’ students’ (European Commission, 2020) in undergraduate studies introduces provisions on the maximum duration of studies and new procedures for requesting extensions.

While a relatively high share of Greek students study abroad, inward mobility is weak. In 2022, 11.7% of Greek students studied abroad (vs EU 11.0% and EU-level target 23%). Outward degree mobility was also well above the EU average, with 9.9% of graduates earning their qualifications abroad (EU: 4.4%). By contrast, inward degree mobility in Greece is low (1.6% vs EU: 9.2%). The inward mobility of non-EU students was particularly low (0.3% vs EU: 6%). To address this challenge, and to enhance its internationalisation efforts in higher education, Greece has taken different measures. Those include the establishment of foreign-language programmes, a new legislative framework for the establishment of non-profit branches of foreign universities, summer schools and short-term inward mobility programmes. In parallel, outreach campaigns targeting non-EU countries were developed, faster recognition of qualifications is being achieved and application procedures were simplified (DOATAP, 2025).

6. Adult skills and learning

The adult learning system continues to face significant challenges, which prevents it from meeting workforce demands, foster lifelong learning, and support broader skills development. Greece continues to record low participation rates in adult education and training, positioning it among the lowest performers in the EU (15.1% vs 39.5% in 2022)^,. Several barriers hinder participation in adult learning, including lack of formal qualifications, family responsibilities, and unsuitable training hours. In addition, structural inadequacies in support, point to systemic issues that need to be addressed. The Ministry of Education, Religious Affairs and Sport’s 2024 annual action plan (Ministry of Education, 2024) set out measures to boost participation to bring it more in line with the EU average. They include the creation of a monitoring mechanism to track adult participation in lifelong learning (LLL) programmes. Other relevant measures include the development of adult learning centres at municipal level and the update of the LLL centres’ operational framework. In 2024, Law 5082/2024 introduced measures to enhance LLL, including the issuance of digital certificates, the development of micro-credentials, and the creation of an online platform for higher vocational training schools. However, many of these measures remain unimplemented due to administrative challenges.

With an overall allocation of around EUR2 billion, the ESF+ and ERDF significantly contribute to the efforts made by the national authorities to enhance the overall skills. Several projects have been launched under the ESF+, including the modernisation of adult educators’ training, the expansion of post-secondary apprenticeship specialties, and the development of new training guides. These measures aim to improve the quality and accessibility of vocational education and LLL opportunities. Furthermore, targeted interventions have been integrated into ESF+ to support post-secondary apprenticeships for graduates of vocational education schools (ΕΠΑΛ) who are not in employment, education, or training (NEETs). In addition, key reforms are being financed under the RRF while the ERDF supports training programmes for skills development.