Education and Training Monitor 2024

1. Learning for sustainability

Policies related to learning for sustainability (LfS) are incorporated into various pieces of legislation and strategies. There is no single policy framework for LfS in Hungary, and neither is there an official definition of the term. The 2020 national core curriculum includes sustainability and environmental awareness as a ‘development area and educational goal’. However, the core curriculum is heavily knowledge-centred, making it difficult to integrate the interdisciplinary, complex content of sustainability into the educational process. A ministerial decree regulates the inclusion of environmental education principles to be followed and related activities in the schools’ pedagogical programmes (EMMI, 2012). The regulation specifies the LfS programmes eligible for support. The government supports various sustainability programmes – such as the Sustainability Week, the network of eco-institutions, the Green Kindergarten and Forest School Programmes, and the School Garden Improvement Programme – with guidance and educational materials. LfS-related activities are financed from the overall school financing or on a case-by-case basis through various grant schemes, including EU-funded projects or the Swiss Contribution. There is no dedicated LfS strategy in higher education either: the general standards and outcomes of higher education only mention that students should acquire ‘a basic knowledge of ... sustainable development’ (KIM, 2023).

One third of children attend kindergartens implementing an LfS programme (Varga, 2022). As part of the Forest Kindergarten Programme, kindergartens can organise outdoor environmental programmes lasting at least 3 consecutive days to raise children’s awareness of nature and develop positive environmental attitudes. Kindergartens with a strong focus on LfS can apply for the Green Kindergarten title. The title is awarded for 3 years; after the third time, kindergartens may apply for a permanent Green Kindergarten title. In Green Kindergartens, environmental education and education for a healthy lifestyle form an integral part of everyday life. These programmes, with their associated self-evaluation and award systems, follow the concept of a whole-institution approach.

The Eco-School Network is well established, but its impact is unclear. The Hungarian Eco-Schools Network was established in 2000 (Saly, 2016) and by now, about a third of schools participate in it. Any school can apply for the Eco-School title; after winning it twice, a permanent Eco-School title can be awarded. A study on the Eco-School system found that while it provides schools with a motivating state-level recognition, it has a limited effect on the organisation of schools and on promoting a pro-environmental behaviour (Gan et al., 2019). The socio-economic status of pupils at Eco-Schools is higher than that of pupils at other schools within the same municipalities. In the 2015 national competence assessment, pupils at Eco-Schools also scored higher in mathematics and reading comprehension than their peers at other schools (Varga et al., 2017). This suggests, on the one hand, that the Eco-School title has coincidentally become a quality label and, on the other hand, that disadvantaged schools need more support including in the area of LfS.

The Sustainability Theme Week is one of the most comprehensive and inclusive initiatives, involving the largest number of schools. Going beyond the traditional curriculum and classroom work, schools can organise a week of sustainability-related activities each April. These usually include a range of extra-curricular and co‑curricular activities. The week is organised by a partnership including several ministries, the Education Authority and non-profit organisations. They provide teachers with a range of topics and lesson plans, in-service training sessions, and significant syllabi.

Green skills were incorporated into the standards and outcome requirements of vocational qualifications of November 2023. It has yet to be determined whether green skills mainly encompass environmental protection and awareness, or if the focus is on green technologies based on an existing occupation that can be acquired through further training (Vujkov, 2024 forthcoming). In 2022/2023, sustainable development was introduced as an optional subject in general upper-secondary education and in vocational education and training.

2. Early childhood education and care

Participation in ECEC is at the EU average, but lowering qualification requirements impacts service quality. From the age of 3, 92.6% of children participate in ECEC (EU average: 93.1%). Regional coverage of kindergartens remains uneven: in 2022, 31% of settlements had no kindergarten (Varga, 2024). Participation of children under the age of 3 in formal ECEC¹ increased substantially from 2022 to 2023 (from 12.9% to 20.3%) but remains well below the EU average (37.4% in 2023). This is partly linked to the availability of a family allowance for parents staying at home with their children until the age of 3, and partly to the scarcity of nursery places. In 2023, there were nearly 60 300 nursery care places available for children below the age of 3. However, for almost 47 000 children (17%), no place could be provided in their own settlement, down from 18% in 2022 (KSH, 2024). Hungary aims to create 4 500 new nursery places financed from the Recovery and Resilience Facility. In 2020, the government changed the employment conditions in kindergartens, reducing the required number of qualified teaching staff. As of January 2024, qualification requirements were eased further, allowing secondary VET graduates in kindergarten education to work as ECEC teachers, which was previously only possible with a tertiary diploma².

3. School education

The high share of underperformers in mathematics, especially among disadvantaged students, represents a limitation to Hungary’s competitiveness and innovation capacity. Results of the 2022 OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) survey show that around 3 out of 10 Hungarian students underperform in mathematics and 1 in 4 students in reading and science. More than half of students (54.9%; EU: 48.0%) from the bottom quarter of the socio-economic distribution underachieve in mathematics. Inequalities are rooted in the way the education system is organised, characterised by the concentration of disadvantaged students in certain schools. Of all students in the EU, disadvantaged students in Hungary most often attend separate schools from their advantaged peers. The concentration of disadvantaged students in certain schools and insufficient support for low-achieving students also lead to a high level of separation based on performance. Of all students in the EU, low-achieving students in Hungary are the second most separated from their high-achieving peers. Performance-based selection starts at age 10, when best-achieving students can apply to 8-year general secondary schools or to 6-year general secondary schools at age 12. Though limited in number, these schools make the school system more selective.

Since 2012, the share of top-performing students has not changed significantly in any of the three domains covered in the PISA survey. While the proportion of top-achieving students was below the EU average in the previous PISA rounds, it is now at the EU average in mathematics, and a bit below the EU average in science and reading. However, this is only because the EU average gradually decreased in all three domains while Hungary’s performance remained stable. Girls are under-represented among top performers in mathematics (5.9%; boys: 9.8%) and science (5.9%; boys: 7.8%), respectively. There is no significant gap in reading.

Student well-being has an impact on student performance. Research has long indicated that student well-being at school, as well as good mental and physical health are fundamental factors to improve academic performance, as they are directly linked to learners’ motivation at school, their focus, their capacity to learn, retain and apply knowledge, and other behavioural and cognitive aspects (European Commission, 2021). In Hungary, 80% of students feel like they belong at school (EU: 72%). Students with a positive sense of belonging scored 12 points higher in mathematics than those who did not feel they belong at school³. This difference is statistically significant and corresponds to the level in other EU countries. Another important aspect of students’ well-being is their exposure to bullying. Almost 20% of students reported that they were bullied at least a few times a month, around the EU average. Students from a disadvantaged background and in disadvantaged schools are more likely to be bullied⁴. The average mathematics score of frequently bullied students is significantly lower than the score of other students in almost all countries (European Commission, 2024).

Increasing teacher shortages impact education quality. While in 2018, one third of schools participating in PISA reported a shortage of qualified teachers, by 2022, this was more than 40%. Teacher shortages in Hungary are most significant in rural areas, and the proportion of unqualified teachers at schools with a disadvantaged profile is 2 to 3 times higher than at schools with a normal profile (Varga, 2024). In a recent survey, teachers cited low wages, high workload, lack of professional autonomy, the composition of the curriculum, and administrative burden as the biggest problems in their work (TÁRKI, 2023). There is no system to forecast teacher supply and demand, which could support planning. The teaching force is ageing: in 2021, 29.5% of teachers were aged 55 or older (EU: 24.5%). In 2023, nearly 5 000 teachers reached the retirement age of 65, while a total of 2 231 new teachers entered the profession in September 2023 (Stéger, 2023).

The new employment model for teachers came into force in July 2023⁵. As a result, teachers are no longer public servants, but public education employees. In parallel, the government introduced several changes to teachers’ employment conditions (Government, 2024). Up to 60 supplementary teaching hours a year are considered occasional and are not remunerated additionally. The new employment model is combined with a new appraisal system. Teachers and support staff will have to undergo an annual internal evaluation as of June 2024, including regarding personalised performance targets specified for each school year (BM, 2024). Teachers can be graded as outstanding, average, or needing improvement, potentially leading to a salary difference between teachers with the same educational level and years of experience.

Early school leaving decreased in 2023 but is still well above the EU average. The rate of early leavers from education and training stood at 11.6% (down from 12.4% in 2022), against the EU average of 9.5% and the EU-level target of less than 9% (Figure 1). The rate is higher in the least-developed regions, in villages (község) and among Roma (60.8%; non-Roma: 9.3%) (MNTFS, 2023). In 2010, 92% of 15-19-year-olds participated in formal school education. By 2015, their rate had declined to 85%, and by 2021 to 81% (OECD, 2023a). A recent study confirmed that disadvantaged young people were stronger impacted by the lowering of the leaving age for compulsory education from 18 to 16 in 2012 (Adamecz et al., 2023). For those who had already reached the lower leaving age of 16, the probability of dropping out of school, entering the public employment service or not being in employment, education or training increased statistically significantly, by 69%, 97% and 63%, respectively. Of all students who dropped out between the ages of 16 and 18, 58% were unable to find a job at all. Between 2011 and 2016, the drop-out rate particularly increased among young Roma people. The share of 17-year-olds who were in education (or had already graduated) fell by almost 20 percentage points among those who identified themselves as Roma (against less than 4 percentage points among non-Roma). In its 2024 country-specific recommendations, the Council of the EU recommended that Hungary takes measures to improve educational attainment levels (EU Council, 2024).

Figure 1: Rate of early leavers from education and training (18-24 year-olds), 2010-2023 (%)

The national competence test (OKM) results may reflect the impact of increasing segregation and school closures linked to COVID-19. The between-school segregation of pupils in the bottom and top income quintiles increased between 2006 and 2019 (Hermann et al., 2023). In particular, the segregation of the poorest students increased by 50%. Segregation of Roma pupils decreased between 2016 and 2021 but remains high, with 44% of Roma children aged 6-15 attending schools where all or most pupils are Roma (FRA, 2022). The increase in the performance gap between advantaged and disadvantaged pupils in the OKM may reflect the strong negative impact of segregation of disadvantaged pupils. Pupils in segregated schools are less likely to complete upper-secondary education, pass the matura and enter tertiary education (Hermann & Kisfalusi, 2023). The results of the 2021 OKM indicate a learning loss linked to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic, which was particularly significant among pupils in grade 6 (Boza & Hermann, 2023). The negative impact was strongest among socio-economically advantaged and well‑performing pupils, while the results of disadvantaged pupils did not worsen further. This resulted in a more even distribution of the test results in 2021, not because disadvantaged groups had caught up but because of the learning losses of their advantaged peers.

4. Vocational education and training

In recent years, Hungary has taken several measures to improve the attractiveness and labour‑market relevance of VET, but further action is needed to address challenges. In 2022, the proportion of upper-secondary students attending programmes with a vocational orientation was above the EU average (52.9%; EU: 49.0%)⁶. However, more than a third of these students are enrolled in programmes leading to qualifications not giving direct access to higher education. The 2022 PISA survey demonstrated that Hungary has one of the largest gaps in average math performance between general and vocational programmes, largely due to differences in the socio-economic composition of schools. In 2023, only a quarter of recent graduates had experienced work-based learning. Still, reflecting a tight labour market and skills shortages at all levels, the employment rate of recent VET graduates in Hungary is slightly above the EU average (83.5%; EU: 81.0%).

Strategic commitments to strengthen students’ basic skills might give a new impetus to improving VET quality. The VET 4.0 strategy, updated in November 2023, sets targets to reduce the share of low‑achievers in the 3-year VET programme (szakképző iskola) in the PISA survey by 10 percentage points by 2030. The VET 4.0 strategy action plan includes measures to facilitate this, supported by the European Social Fund Plus (ESF+), such as strengthening continuous professional development for VET teachers and trainers in basic skills development, improving competence measurement in VET, providing targeted small-group support to low-achieving pupils, and supporting the integrated education of pupils with special educational needs. A pilot project on improving VET permeability will test how students and graduates of the 3-year VET programme can move to the 5-year VET programme (technikum) without any additional study or examination requirements. Teacher salaries in VET were raised by 32% in January 2024, similarly to salaries in school education, following an earlier 30% rise in 2020.

5. Higher education

The tertiary educational attainment rate is low despite a growing demand for a highly skilled workforce. At 29.4%, the proportion of the population aged 25-34 holding a tertiary degree in Hungary is among the lowest in the EU (EU: 43.1%; EU-level target: 45.0%) (Figure 2). Contrary to the general trend in the EU, this rate has even decreased since 2013, when it was 31.2% (EU: 35.1%) (Figure 2). The employment rate of recent tertiary graduates (94.7%) exceeds the EU average (87.7%)⁷, indicating a high demand. The low attainment rate is combined with low intergenerational educational mobility (Adamecz, 2023): Hungary has the fourth-lowest share of first-generation graduates among OECD countries, according to data recorded between 2011 and 2018. Children of parents with no higher education qualifications are 27 percentage points less likely to obtain a tertiary degree than those whose parents have a degree. Data show that there is a high correlation between net earnings and the share of graduates (0.78) and that the share of graduates explains 61% of the earnings gap between municipalities (GKI, 2023). Therefore, improving equity in education participation could promote social mobility and increase earning levels.

Figure 2: Tertiary educational attainment level (25-34 year-olds), 2012-2023 (%)

Applications and enrolments. A total of 120 990 people applied to start tertiary studies in 2024/2025, which is 4% less than in 2023, but more than in the years before. The increase is probably linked to the removal of previous barriers to higher education, such as the advanced level secondary education leaving exam and central admission requirements. As of 2022/2023, the government abolished the central admission requirements and transferred this competence to the universities, who have developed more favourable entry requirements, with considerable variation among them. Among the applicants, 17 833 people applied for initial teacher education programmes (ITE), a 25% increase from the previous year. However, the overwhelming majority (78%) of the 10 623 applicants for ECEC and primary teacher programmes applied for part-time studies. This implies that these applicants are not new candidates but already practising teachers wishing to upgrade their qualifications (Stéger, 2023). The demand for lower- and upper-secondary ITE programmes remains low, despite the government’s decision to shorten the 6-year traditional single-tier programmes to 5 years as of 2022 and to open up the possibility of two-, three- and four-semester-long teacher training programmes.

ITE has been further reformed. New pathways have been introduced, making it much easier to obtain a teaching qualification (EMMI, 2013). From now on, all higher education institutions providing ITE can award a primary school teacher qualification to kindergarten teachers after 2 years of further study, and those with a primary school qualification can obtain a secondary school teacher qualification in a specific subject. In addition, it has become possible for candidates with related prior qualifications to obtain a secondary teacher qualification after two, three or four semesters of Master’s studies. Also, the government launched a new ITE programme at the National University of Public Service (NKE) as of 2025/2026. The NKE is governed by a specific law – other than the Act on Higher Education – which has now been amended to allow the university to deviate freely from the laws and regulations governing ITE. The ITE programmes at the NKE will not be required to undergo pre-accreditation, and the Education Authority must register the start of the programmes without first seeking the opinion of the Hungarian Higher Education Accreditation Committee.

Participation in learning mobility is low. Hungary belongs to the countries with the lowest (8.5% in 2022; EU: 10.9%)⁸ shares of graduates who completed parts of or all their studies abroad ⁹, far from the EU target of 23%. In 2022, 13.1% of higher education graduates in Hungary were inward degree mobile (graduates from abroad coming to study in Hungary) (EU: 8.7%). Participation in the Erasmus+ and Horizon Europe programmes has been suspended for universities maintained by public interest trusts since December 2022. Other universities and higher education institutions still have access to these EU programmes. This is linked to the decision of the Council of the EU to prohibit the European Commission from entering into legal commitments with public interest trusts or entities that they maintain. This decision was motivated by concerns regarding breaches of the rule of law and the high risks these entail for the EU budget. In response, in 2023, the government announced a HUF 10 billion (EUR 25.3 million) international exchange programme for students, teachers and researchers for universities maintained by public interest trusts, with an estimated 8 000 participants in 2024.

6. Adult learning

Adults’ digital skills and participation in learning have improved significantly in recent years, but some disadvantaged groups are still lagging behind. In 2022, Hungary’s population aged 25-64 that participated in some form of education and training over the previous 12 months increased to 62.2%¹⁰ (EU: 39.5%). Similarly, the share of 16-74-year-olds with at least basic overall digital skills rose, reaching 58.9%¹¹ in 2023 (EU: 55.5%). On both indicators, Hungary was one of the EU’s best performers, also achieving its national skills target of 60% by 2030. Nevertheless, people with a low level of education, unemployed people and people outside the labour force are behind in lifelong learning (42.1%, 20.7% and 18.2%, respectively) and in digital skills (33.4%, 33.4 and 29.4%, respectively). Persons with disabilities also tend to participate in learning significantly less than those without any disability (7.8% versus 29.4%¹²). This has an impact on the participation of these groups in the labour market, their take-up of education and training, and their social inclusion.

Legislative and administrative changes might play a role in this record-high participation in training. Training leading to qualifications and certificates started before the 2019 reform of the National Qualifications Register (Országos Képzési Jegyzék) had to be completed by the end of 2022, which might have boosted training participation. Further reform elements might have a significant positive effect on adult learning and skills. The revised VET 4.0 strategy of 2023 strengthens career guidance for adults, the validation of prior learning and includes measures supporting adults with special educational needs. In May 2024, an individual learning account scheme was proposed in the framework of an EU funded technical support project ( HUN-ILA ). The related government decision is still in progress. As part of the RRP’s REPowerEU chapter, Hungary is to adopt a green skills strategy and its action plan before the end of 2024, and invest in developing the green skills of at least 50 000 workers with at most upper-secondary education by 2026.