European Commission

Education and Training Monitor 2023

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Comparative report

Chapter 3. School education

3.1. Early school leaving

EU-level 2030 target: ‘The share of early leavers from education and training should be less than 9% by 2030.’

Efforts to bring down early school leaving104 have been a great success in the last two decades. Figure 13 takes all pre-COVID-19 early school leaving data and estimates their trajectory towards 2030, using forecasts of known determinants such as unemployment rates and proxies for parental educational attainment. Firstly, these estimates do not differ from observed early school leaving rates post-2019, suggesting negligible COVID-19 effects on the EU average so far105. Secondly, they suggest that the EU-level 2030 target for early school leavers is within reach, falling below 9% around 2027.

Figure 13. Estimates suggest the EU-level 2030 target will be reached.
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In 2022, 9.6% of all 18-24-year-olds across the EU had disengaged from school without attaining upper secondary education, widely acknowledged as a minimum threshold for educational attainment106. This percentage translates into approximately 3.1 million young people. It continues a persistent decrease in the early school leaving rate, with only nine EU countries now recording early school leaving rates above 9% (Figure 14)107. Six of these have early warning systems in place to prevent early school leaving based on detailed student data (Bulgaria, Estonia, Italy, Hungary, Malta, Romania)108.

Figure 14. Nine EU countries record early school leaving rates above 9%.
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The 2019-22 period is of particular interest, comparing the latest annual figures against the last fully pre-COVID-19 data. The 2019-22 trends paint a mixed picture across EU countries, with four recording an increase in early school leaving rates of 1 percentage point or more (Sweden, Germany, Finland, and Luxembourg), compared to 11 EU countries with an equally sizeable decrease. Four of the five biggest 2019-22 drops are observed in the 2022 bottom performers (Malta, Spain, Bulgaria, and Italy). Across the EU on average, the 2019-22 early school leaving rate shows a 0.6 percentage point decline.

Box 10. Examples from the country reports

In Estonia, measures to reduce early school leaving aim to increase all students’ motivation to continue education. A project funded by the EU’s Technical Support Instrument is helping Estonia develop policy options to better integrate non-formal and formal learning. The Ministry’s approach to reducing early school leaving also includes supporting pupils with special educational needs and improving the school climate (for instance more systematically implementing anti-bullying measures). A new national curriculum is also being designed to increase students’ motivation and autonomy.

To reduce early school leaving and youth unemployment, Luxembourg raised its compulsory schooling age from 16 to 18 in July 2023. The law in question will enter into force as of 2026-27 and will be combined with an expansion of the education and training offer to give young people more chances to obtain a qualification. Alternative schooling pathways will be offered at socio-professional integration centres (centres d’insertion socio-professionnelle). The centres offer tailored support alongside formal education in close collaboration with social workers, their partner schools, the Regional Childcare Office, and young people’s families.

In Romania, the national programme for reducing school dropout aims to address the structural challenge of early school leaving with a budget of EUR 500 million financed by the Recovery and Resilience Facility. In the first round, over 1 400 schools received grants of up to EUR 200 000 to provide students with teaching, support, and extra-curricular activities, and to develop partnerships with stakeholders. An additional call for projects was organised in 2023, giving schools a maximum grant of EUR 300 000. At the same time, the early warning tool, developed with the support of the Technical Support Instrument, has been extended to primary and lower secondary education. The tool will help identify children at risk of dropout and give them support. The Recovery and Resilience Facility will also fund training for 45 000 teachers on how to use the early warning tool.

Successful strategies to tackle early school leaving tend to combine prevention, intervention, and compensation measures comprehensively and over a long time110. Box 10 summarises a few recent examples from the 2023 Education and Training Monitor’s country reports. The 2023 comparative report looks at a few enabling factors linked to the teaching profession. Tackling early school leaving continues to be a key priority for teachers across the EU, with policies increasingly built around diversity, inclusion and well-being.

Figure 15 captures the prevalence of various characteristics of competence frameworks for initial teacher training111 and programmes for continuing professional development112. Overall, it suggests professional development compensates for some gaps in initial teacher training113, although both tend to focus on diversity and inclusion (see also Section 3.3). Promoting a positive school climate has become another priority for both initial teacher training and continuing professional development, reflected in widespread measures to prevent bullying and violence through quality assurance mechanisms114.

Figure 15. Teachers have many support measures at their disposal to help them deal with the complex challenge of early school leaving.

Source: Eurydice 2023.

Note: the figure adds up EU education systems reporting the existence of policies in the areas mentioned above. There are 29 systems surveyed in total, with all three Communities in Belgium recorded separately.

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Figure 15 also captures policies promoting the development of multidisciplinary support teams in and around schools115. Psychologists and counsellors are most frequently cited in policies on multidisciplinary support (recorded for 22 EU education systems), again indicating a new emphasis on well-being at school116. They are followed by specialised teachers (such as teachers for special needs education, inclusiveness, learning difficulties, language difficulties), all recorded for 20 systems.

In a nutshell

The average proportion of early leavers from education and training keeps going down, from 10.2% in 2019 to 9.6% in 2022. Caution remains warranted however, as progress masks considerable variation between EU education systems. Still, despite the COVID-19 pandemic, the EU remains on a clear trajectory to be able to reach its 2030 target of less than 9% of 18-24-year-olds leaving school without at least upper secondary educational attainment. In terms of the policy response, initial teacher training, continuing professional development and multidisciplinary support teams increasingly work towards diversity and inclusion. A new emphasis on well-being at school is evident in widespread bullying and violence prevention measures, as well as psychosocial support services, although it remains to be seen what evidence there is of the effectiveness of these policy responses.

3.2. Enabling factors in school education

There are several enabling factors117 at the system and institutional levels that may act as policy levers, helping teachers (re)engage people in school education, motivating and supporting them in acquiring key competences118 such as basic skills119 and digital skills120. Benefiting from the latest available evidence, this section focuses on a few of those enabling factors, some applying to key competences in general and others more specifically to digital skills and informatics.

Cross-curricular learning121 can enrich learning and strengthen the connections between the different subjects in the curriculum, establishing a firm link between what is being taught at school versus its evolving societal relevance. Based on steering documents, cross-curricular learning for all study content122 is widespread in primary education while becoming progressively less so in secondary education123. This is matched with measures to support teachers in delivering cross-curricular learning, such as continuing professional development, in 22 EU countries124. However, only 12 systems have set specific quality criteria related to cross-curricular learning in school evaluations (Figure 16).

Figure 16. Only 12 systems have set specific quality criteria for cross-curricular learning in school evaluations.
Map showing the distribution of EU education systems according to the existence of specific quality criteria for cross-curricular learning in shool evaluation, wether internal or external (or both). The criteria is present in 12 out of 29 EU education systems.

Source: Eurydice 2023.

Note: the figure adds up EU education systems reporting the existence of policies in the areas mentioned above. There are 29 systems surveyed in total, with all three Communities in Belgium recorded separately.

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Formative assessment125, a second enabling factor, has the potential to tackle underachievement as it involves adapting teaching and learning to address and support the individual learner’s needs effectively126. It no longer consists of tests or exams but is rather an integrated part of teaching by representing a dynamic process in which teaching and learning adapts according to the learner’s needs. Components of effective formative assessment include a planned and structured classroom127, feedback that is aimed at helping the learner128, learners’ active engagement129, the use of different assessment tools, and the adjustment of teaching and learning.

Another enabling factor that can enrich learning is the active participation of learners in school governance and decision-making130, which has the potential to (re)engage and motivate young people131. Student participation in decision-making at school is a requirement in most EU countries. Only Czechia, Croatia, Malta, and Slovakia have no such requirement132. However, it is less common for students to provide mandatory input in quality assurance activities. For each of the three categories of quality assurance that are considered (external evaluations, internal evaluations, and setting up a school development plan), only 11 to 13 EU education systems133 require student participation134.

Box 11. A downward trend in reading literacy is primarily driven by an increase in underachievement.

The European Commission recently published an EU comparative analysis of new findings from Progress in International Reading Literacy Study 2021 (PIRLS), which focusses on reading literacy among fourth grade students. Almost a quarter of all students fail to reach the intermediate benchmark on the PIRLS achievement scale (Figure 17), with underachievement particularly high in the French Community of Belgium (38%), Cyprus (31%), and Malta (30%).

Figure 17. Almost one in four fourth grade students underachieve in reading literacy.
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What is more, 2016-21 comparisons point at a downward trend for reading performance across EU countries. While almost all participating EU education systems score above the international average in 2021, only France recorded an increase in reading performance from 2016 to 2021. Further exploration of this development reveals that, while a small decrease in top performance has occurred, the negative trend is primarily driven by an increase in underachievement135.

When it comes to digital skills136, curricular approaches vary between countries137. In the EU, digital skills are being taught using several curricular approaches, often in parallel138. The most common at primary level is the cross-curricular approach (Figure 18), where digital skills are understood to be transversal, and the aim is to have students developing digital skills in multiple subjects. Integrating digital education into other compulsory subjects, such as mathematics or science, is also a common approach at this level. In secondary education, it is more common to teach digital skills through a compulsory separate subject, which is as common as the cross-curricular approach at lower secondary level. Upper secondary education sees a shift in the curriculum approach to optional subjects, although compulsory separate subjects and cross-curricular approaches are still quite common139.

Figure 18. Different curricular approaches to teaching digital skills are frequently used in parallel.
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Over half of the education systems in EU countries record a mandatory inclusion of teacher-specific digital competences140 in initial teacher training for all teacher profiles and prospective teachers of all or some education levels141. There are also some systems where developing teacher-specific digital competences is only mandatory for some teachers’ profiles (such as informatics or mathematics teachers)142. Remaining systems either do not have a requirement or leave the decision on providing teacher-specific digital competences to the institutional autonomy of initial teacher education providers143.

Looking closer at informatics, attracting, and retaining specialist informatics teachers144 is a challenge shared by countries that are introducing informatics into their curriculum and countries that have been providing it for a long time. One of the main reasons for informatics teacher shortages is that relatively few students gain an academic degree in informatics compared with the number the labour market requires145. ICT graduates are in high demand in the job market, and salaries and career opportunities in the industry are generally more attractive than in schools146. Only two education systems (Greece and Italy) reported no informatics teacher shortages in general education for the 2022-23 school year147.

Figure 19. Only 13 EU education systems offer both alternative pathways and retraining schemes for (prospective) informatics teachers.

Many countries have introduced alternative pathways or retraining programmes to train specialist informatics teachers (Figure 19), but it remains to be seen how effective they are148. Only 13 EU education systems offer both alternative pathways and retraining schemes for (prospective) teachers at one or more education levels. Alternative pathways targeting professionals without teaching qualifications exist in 11 education systems for prospective lower secondary education teachers and in 14 education systems for prospective upper secondary education teachers149.

In a nutshell

Cross-curricular learning and active participation in decision-making are both heavily promoted in EU countries. However, only 13 education systems have set specific quality criteria for cross-curricular learning in school evaluations and even fewer make sure that students provide input into various quality assurance mechanisms. Cross-curricular learning is also a common approach used in teaching digital skills in the EU, especially in primary education, although it is not the only one. Digital skills are taught using several approaches, often in parallel. Teacher shortages are a major obstacle to the teaching of digital skills, particularly for subjects such as informatics. However, only 13 education systems offer both alternative pathways and retraining schemes for (prospective) informatics teachers at one or more education levels.

3.3. Equity and inclusion

This section builds on the new EU-level indicator for equity in education proposed in the 2022 EEA Progress Report and reported in the previous edition of the Education and Training Monitor.

The previous edition of the Education and Training Monitor introduced a new EU-level indicator on equity in education150. Combining the OECD’s PISA assessments of proficiency in reading, mathematics and science, the new indicator compared country-level shares of underachievement between 15-year-olds from more advantaged socio-economic backgrounds and those from disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds151. This section looks at several other dimensions of educational disadvantage, some associated with socio-economic status and others not directly.

The OECD’s index for economic, social and cultural status captures dimensions such as parental education152, parental occupation153 and certain home possessions, the latter comprising a household’s educational resources and wealth. Following the approach of the EU-level equity indicator, results show that 15-year-olds with less educated parents are, on average across the EU, 2.5 times more likely to underachieve in all three assessments than those with high educated parents154. Similarly, the risk of underachievement is 4.7 times greater for 15-year-olds whose parents have a low-level occupation compared with children whose parents have a high-level occupation155.

When it comes to educational resources, sub-dimensions associated with a home learning environment are particularly important156. New findings from the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) 2021 among fourth grade students show a clear correlation between reading performance and the number of books at home157. On average, students from homes with more than 100 books score 64 scale points higher on the PIRLS reading achievement scale than students from homes with 10 books or fewer (Figure 20). The gap is particularly large in Bulgaria (111), Slovakia (86), and Hungary (115), but is apparent in all surveyed educational systems, with the lowest gap found in the Netherlands and Latvia (47).

Figure 20. The home learning environment yields a strong educational advantage.
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Box 12. Boys are slowly catching up with girls

Across the EU on average, young women are 3.1 percentage points less likely to leave school before attaining upper secondary education than young men, with early school leaving rates of 8.0% and 11.1% respectively. The gender gap has decreased since 2019, but only because the average rate among men has gone down. In fact, the average proportion of early school leaving among women has now remained unchanged for three years in a row158, albeit beyond the below 9% EU-level 2030 target since 2017.

Similarly, young women are 4.5 percentage points more likely to attain the level of upper secondary education than young men (20-24 age group), with rates of 85.9% and 81.4% respectively. While there has been a slight 2019-22 increase in the proportion of young men attaining upper secondary education (up 0.4 percentage point), for young women the proportion has slightly decreased (down 0.3 percentage point)159. On average, the gender gap has decreased 0.7 percentage point.

Having a migrant background is often associated with strong educational disadvantages160. In 2022, first-generation migrants who, like their parents, were born outside the EU were three times more likely to leave school early (23.9%) than young people who, like their parents, were born in the reporting country (8.0%)161. The heightened risk of early school leaving among first-generation migrants increased 1.3 percentage points from 2021 to 2022. The deterioration is most significant among young women (increasing from 18.1% in 2021 to 20.3% in 2022), although it is still not as marked as that for to young men (from 26.5% in 2021 to 27.0% in 2022).

The implications of Russia’s aggression against Ukraine, with an unprecedent volume of displaced people, are having a significant impact on the EU education systems, emphasising the challenge of integrating newcomers into school education. EU countries are hosting more than 1.3 million displaced children from Ukraine, out of which approximately 840 000 are of compulsory schooling age, and over 680 000 are enrolled in schools in the host country. Though not doing justice to the nature of the challenge, Figure 21 quantifies the relative size of the challenge in relation to the size of each country’s education system. The number of displaced children from Ukraine enrolled in the 2022-23 school year represents almost 3% of the total cohort of students in Estonia, Poland, Czechia, and Lithuania162.

Figure 21. EU education and training systems are working on the inclusion of displaced children from Ukraine.
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Box 13. Examples from the country reports

Czechia has integrated over 50 000 displaced pupils from Ukraine in its schools in 2022-23. Most children under temporary protection are placed in public schools and are obliged to enrol no later than 3 months after their arrival. They represent approximately 2.8% of all pupils in early childhood education and care, primary education, and secondary education. Children receive free preparatory classes in the Czech language and special adaptation groups can also be organised at the request of the parents. In 2022 and 2023, the Ministry of Education provided financial support for those taking up the position of a Ukrainian teaching assistant in pre-primary, primary, and secondary education and helped employ over 350 displaced teachers from Ukraine.

Estonia has enrolled more than 7 500 displaced pupils from Ukraine into its school system, which represents around 3% of enrolments, among the highest in the EU. To accommodate the increased student numbers, an additional 800 school places were created in Tallinn, including a separate school – the Freedom School for Ukrainian pupils – teaching the Estonian curriculum partly in Ukrainian. Local governments receive a grant per Ukrainian pupil enrolled in education, which takes into account labour costs, recreational activities, school meals, teaching materials as well as language training. Participation in early childhood education and care is not obligatory and capacity shortages are a challenge.

The challenge of equal access to quality, inclusive and mainstream education is one that persists for many children coming from marginalised Roma communities. A 2022 report from the Fundamental Rights Agency163 stresses that substantial efforts need to be made to achieve the EU Roma strategic framework education objectives and targets by 2030164, with only negligible progress between the 2016 and 2021 surveys. Nearly three out of four young Roma aged 18–24 (71%) leave the education system early, with only one in four young Roma aged 20–24 (27%) completing upper secondary education. In compulsory school, more than half of Roma children aged 6–15 (52%) are in segregated schools where most or all schoolmates are Roma (44% in 2016). Discrimination rates when in contact with school authorities increased between 2016 and 2021, from 7% to 11%, across the EU countries surveyed. One in five Roma children experienced bullying or harassment while in school.

A 2023 Eurydice report on diversity and inclusion in schools captures efforts to address discrimination165 and promote diversity in a comparative, cross-EU perspective. It shows that students with special educational needs or disabilities166 are the main target group in all analysed areas, including strategic policy frameworks, measures to promote access and participation, national curricula, learning and social-emotional support policies and measures, and teacher education and training. The second most widely targeted student group across most of the thematic areas167 are migrant and refugee students, followed by ethnic minority students such as Roma.

Box 14. Incentives for teachers working in schools with many disadvantaged students168

Financial incentives to support and motivate teachers working in disadvantaged schools can come in the form of an increased basic salary or an additional allowance. Less than half of all EU countries provide additional allowances for teachers working in schools with many disadvantaged students (Figure 22). An increased basic salary is even rarer, with only the Baltic countries and Romania providing such a financial measure169.

Figure 22. Only in the Baltic countries and Romania teachers receive an increased basic salary for working in disadvantaged schools.

Another way to support and motivate teachers to work in disadvantaged schools is to deploy non-financial incentives, such as offering better working conditions, preferential next assignments or faster career progression. Non-financial incentives are, however, no more prevalent than financial measures170. Across the EU, 15 education systems record better working conditions, such as a reduced workload or fewer students per teacher. A preferential next assignment is only possible in the French Community of Belgium, Spain, and France. The chance for faster career progression is provided only by France171.

Furthermore, teacher diversity can be beneficial for all students, particularly for those belonging to under-represented and/or disadvantaged groups172. However, a 2023 OECD report reveals a lack of diversity within the teaching workforce in schools, for instance in terms of teachers’ sex, ethnicity, and sexual orientation. The 2023 Eurydice report on diversity and inclusion in schools shows that only seven EU countries have policies or measures in place promoting the recruitment of teachers from diverse backgrounds in schools173.

In a nutshell

Prevalent underachievement in basic skills remains a cause for concern across the EU. Having introduced a new EU-level indicator on equity in education in the previous Education and Training Monitor, this year’s report takes a closer look at the various sub-components of socio-economic status, as well as the aspects of educational disadvantage that go beyond it. New findings from the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) 2021 show a clear correlation between reading performance and the number of books at home. First-generation migrants who, like their parents, were born outside the EU are three times more likely to leave school early (23.9%) than young people who, like their parents, were born in the reporting country (8.0%). Furthermore, over 1.3 million displaced children from Ukraine are being hosted across EU countries, with a concerted effort to integrate them into each country’s education system.

Notes

  • 104.Early leavers from education and training, used here interchangeably with early school leavers, are 18-24-year-olds whose highest level of education or training is at most lower secondary education and who received no education or training (neither formal nor non-formal) in the 4 weeks preceding the survey. Sex-disaggregated data are discussed in Section 3.3.

  • 105.The 2023 report from the European Commission (Joint Research Centre) suggests caution remains warranted. Both positive and negative effects of COVID-19 are at play, varying substantially between countries and over time, not to mention the extent to which such effects have since rebounded and mixed with various other megatrends. Moreover, it is worth noting that, for some of these 18-24-year-olds, the decision not to pursue further education or training may have been taken quite a while ago, which is why not all disengagement due to COVID-19 may be reflected in this indicator already. Finally, the decrease in observed figures appears to stagnate, suggesting that further progress does become more difficult as early school leaving rates become lower.

  • 106.Young people’s labour market integration is but one measure for the effects of not reaching this minimum threshold in educational attainment. Of the approximately 3.1 million early school leavers in 2022, only 45.8% was employed in 2022, rebounding from 42.4% in 2020 and 42.9% in 2021. Monitor Toolbox The NEET rate (the share of young people aged 15-29 who are neither in employment nor in education and training) was 2.9 percentage points higher among youth without upper secondary educational attainment (13.6%) than those with at least upper secondary educational attainment (10.7%). Monitor Toolbox Youth unemployment (age 15-29) was 11.3% on average, and 7.7 percentage points higher among youth without upper secondary educational attainment (19.0%). Monitor Toolbox The 2023 Eurydice report reveals that the vast majority of EU education systems surveyed record policies on the provision of career education and guidance in secondary schools, whether through the compulsory curriculum, internal/external services or work placements/job shadowing. Only the Netherlands and Portugal record no such policies.

  • 107.Looking at the available regional data for the three bottom-performing EU countries, early school leaving rates are particularly high (18% or above) in Romania’s Centru (23.4%) and Sud-Est (23.1%), Spain’s Región de Murcia (18.7%) and Illes Balears (18.2%), and Hungary’s Észak-Magyarország (23.6%). Similarly high early school leaving rates are recorded in Bulgaria’s Yugoiztochen (18.9%) and Italy’s Sicilia (18.8%), alongside outermost regions such as Guyane (France, 28.0%) and Açores (Portugal, 26.5%). Monitor Toolbox Averaging early school leaving rates for a country’s rural areas reveals high shares (18% or above) for Romania (24.5%), Hungary (19.7%), and Bulgaria (19.1%). Monitor Toolbox For further details about the regional dimension, see the 2023 Eurostat regional yearbook.

  • 108.See the 2023 Eurydice report. Out of all EU education systems surveyed, 9 do not record any policies for early warning systems or similar monitoring actions to prevent early school leaving.

  • 109.As from 2021, new legislation applies to the EU Labour Force Survey (LFS). The methodological changes have a particular impact on labour force status but can also affect other LFS indicators. Further information on the changes can be found here.

  • 110.See the 2022 Council Recommendation on Pathways to School Success.

  • 111.Five EU countries do not have competence frameworks for ITE (Greece, the Netherlands, Romania, Slovenia, and Finland). See the 2023 Eurydice report. Monitor Toolbox

  • 112.Only one EU country, the Netherlands, reported no continuing professional development promoted through education authorities. Measures to tackle early school leaving are decided at the level of municipalities and schools. See the 2023 Eurydice report. Monitor Toolbox

  • 113.A notable gap in initial teacher training appears to be teachers’ well-being, recorded in only 9 EU education systems while part of continuing professional development programmes in 22 systems. But it is also worth noting that developing prevention measures and diagnosing risk factors are largely left to continuing professional development in most systems, echoed by the finding that, out of all EU education systems surveyed, 9 do not record any policies for early warning systems or similar monitoring actions to prevent early school leaving. See the 2023 Eurydice report. Monitor Toolbox

  • 114.According to the 2023 Eurydice report, bullying and violence prevention measures are either among the criteria for internal evaluation or school development plans (recorded for 19 EU education systems) or for external school evaluations (19 systems). Exceptions are the German-speaking Community of Belgium, Ireland, Croatia, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Poland. Monitor Toolbox

  • 115.Five EU education systems do not record policies on multidisciplinary support teams (the German-speaking Community of Belgium, Ireland, Croatia, the Netherlands, and Romania). See the 2023 Eurydice report. Monitor Toolbox

  • 116.The 2023 Eurydice report also records the specific policies supporting well-being. Psychosocial support services are promoted by 26 EU education systems, excluding only Italy, the Netherlands and Romania. Policies on psychosocial assessments are less common, though still reported for 20 EU education systems.Monitor Toolbox

  • 117.Examples are cross-discipline learning, whole school approaches, learner continuity, cross-sectorial cooperation, active participation and decision making of learners, guidance and support for innovative learning methodologies (including access to centres of expertise, tools and materials), and competence-oriented approaches (in initial teacher education, continuing professional development and staff exchanges).

  • 118.The European Commission promotes the development of key competences in line with the 2018 Council Recommendation on key competences for lifelong learning, the 2020 Commission Communication on achieving the European Education Area by 2025, the 2020 Commission Communication on the European Skills Agenda and the 2022 Council Recommendation on Pathways to School Success. In 2023, the European Commission also adopted a proposal for a Council Recommendation on improving the provision of digital skills in education and training and a proposal for a Council Recommendation on the key enabling factors for successful digital education and training.

  • 119.The corresponding EU-level 2030 target is for the share of low-achieving 15-year-olds in reading, mathematics, and science to be less than 15%. Data underpinning this EU-level target come from the OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). The 2023 Education and Training Monitor precedes the publication of PISA 2022 data.

  • 120.The corresponding EU-level 2030 target is for the share of low-achieving eighth graders in computer and information literacy to be less than 15%. Data underpinning this EU-level target come from the IEA’s International Computer and Information Literacy Study (ICILS). ICILS 2022 data, covering 22 EU countries, are expected towards the end of 2024.

  • 121.Under this approach, rather than only explicitly mentioned as part of particular subjects, educational content and objectives are understood to be transversal and therefore taught across subjects and curriculum activities. See the 2023 Eurydice report. Monitor Toolbox

  • 122.Study areas that are commonly taught in a cross-curricular way include personal and social development, environmental education, entrepreneurship, media education, multicultural education, and health education.

  • 123.See the 2023 Eurydice report. Monitor Toolbox

  • 124.Exceptions are Belgium (French and Flemish Communities), Cyprus, Germany, Lithuania, the Netherlands, and Slovenia. See the 2023 Eurydice report. Monitor Toolbox

  • 125.Formative assessment provides timely feedback during the learning process and has the potential to provide information on each student’s progress in learning, thereby enabling teachers and learners to make informed adjustments to the process.

  • 126.See a 2023 thematic report from the EEA strategic framework Working Group on Schools (sub-group on Pathways to School Success).

  • 127.For instance, observation, review of written work products and portfolios, student presentations and projects, inquiry learning, interviews, tests, and quizzes. These activities align with cross-curricular activities as they involve knowledge being applied in different contexts.

  • 128.Feedback is most effective when it is timely, focused on learning processes, and comprises specific suggestions on how to improve future performance and meet learning goals.

  • 129.Learners’ active engagement in their learning and assessment is key to effective formative assessment as it encourages them to reflect on their own thinking and learning, thereby developing their learning to learn key competence.

  • 130.Student involvement in decision-making at school, through student councils, parliaments and similar bodies, may concern a range of areas such as school management (budget, decisions on school infrastructure, internal regulations), design and delivery of learning (choice of study topics, feedback on missing perspectives in the curriculum, feedback on the use of innovative/engaging teaching practices), well-being/anti-bulling strategies, equality strategies, sustainability declarations and actions, various reporting and evaluation activities, school partnerships, extra-curricular activities, and allocation of student aid.

  • 131.A 2021 report by five child rights organisations (Eurochild, UNICEF, Save the Children, World Vision, and Child Fund Alliance) emphasised how children want a greater say in the decisions affecting their lives, with the vast majority of respondents (70% in the EU) wanting to participate more if they were given the opportunity to.

  • 132.This applies to lower secondary education. In primary education, that list of exceptions also includes Greece, Spain, France, Italy, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Austria. See the 2023 Eurydice report. Monitor Toolbox

  • 133.This applies to lower secondary education. In primary education, the requirement to involve students in quality assurance mechanisms is much less common. See the 2023 Eurydice report. Monitor Toolbox

  • 134.France, Latvia, Portugal, and Spain are worth singling out for their requirement to involve students in all three quality assurance mechanisms in lower secondary education. See the 2023 Eurydice report. Monitor Toolbox

  • 135.Moreover, PIRLS 2021 adds to the existing evidence about the importance of well-being at school for child academic performance. Exposure to bullying, including cyberbullying, proves to be widespread, and sizeable shares of children often experience unhealthy situations, such as feeling tired or hungry when they arrive at school.

  • 136.For the purposes of this report, the terms digital skills and digital competences are used interchangeably.

  • 137.The 2023 Eurydice report shows that compulsory teaching of digital skills for all (or most) students starts in primary education in most EU countries. There are only a few education systems where the teaching of digital skills starts in lower secondary education (Croatia, Cyprus, Austria, and Malta). Some education systems do not have a compulsory starting grade, only a recommendation (Ireland and Slovenia) or it is left to lower levels of governance (Belgium, Germany, and the Netherlands). Monitor Toolbox According to a 2019 Eurydice report, most education systems in the EU have either a specific strategy devoted to digital education or a broad strategy that incorporates elements of digital education in primary and general secondary education. While it is common across EU countries to have strategies related to the digital transformation of education and training and providing digital skills, these are not always specific, detailed, or comprehensive enough.

  • 138.Two or more approaches are used in 19 education systems at primary level, 18 at lower secondary level, and 22 at upper secondary level (2023 Eurydice report). Monitor Toolbox Although each approach is valid, do not exclude each other, and can co-exist and help in supporting learners to develop digital skills, implementing each approach carries both advantages and disadvantages, often depending on the level of education. Each approach also has a different impact on learners’ digital skills and learning outcomes, depending on how it is implemented, and on teachers’ required competence level.

  • 139.In most EU countries, the compulsory separate subject relating to digital competence referenced in Figure 18 corresponds to the informatics subject. Providing informatics as a separate subject is not widespread in primary education. The education systems tend to start offering informatics as a separate subject towards the end of primary education or in lower secondary education, usually as a compulsory subject. Most countries have one or more informatics subjects in upper secondary education, but these are often optional or are only compulsory for some students. Only two EU countries introduce informatics as a compulsory subject for all students as early as first grade (Greece and Latvia, depending on the school). A second group of countries (Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, and Slovakia) start in grade 3 or 4. In education systems where informatics is only offered as an optional subject or is left to the school’s discretion, not all students benefit from having a separate informatics subject. See the 2023 Eurydice report. Monitor Toolbox The 2023 Commission proposal for a Council Recommendation on improving the provision of digital skills in education and training acknowledges the need to provide quality informatics education at school. See the 2022 Eurydice report on informatics education at school in Europe for an in-depth analysis of the current state of informatics education in Europe.

  • 140.These are competences needed to support and improve teaching and learning by using digital technologies, along with the ability to use digital technologies for communication, collaboration, and professional development.

  • 141.In 16 education systems, this applies to prospective teachers of all education levels. However, some education systems do not have this requirement for all levels. In 19 education systems, teacher-specific digital competences are mandatory for all prospective teachers of primary education, compared to 20 systems for prospective teachers of lower secondary education, and 20 systems for prospective teachers of upper secondary education (2023 Eurydice report). Monitor Toolbox

  • 142.This is the case in Latvia (for prospective primary and lower secondary teachers), Luxembourg, Malta (prospective secondary education teachers) and the Netherlands (prospective upper secondary teachers). See the 2023 Eurydice report. Monitor Toolbox

  • 143.Before the COVID-19 pandemic, only 37.5% of lower secondary teachers in the EU felt that they were well or very well prepared to use digital technologies in teaching (data from TALIS 2018). Digital training of teachers and staff is one of the enabling factors highlighted in the 2023 Commission proposal for a Council Recommendation on the key enabling factors for successful digital education and training. The quality of teachers and teaching, and in particular the availability of specialised teachers for subjects such as informatics, are key enabling factors for successful digital education.

  • 144.In primary education, informatics is still mostly taught by generalist teachers when offered as a separate subject. By contrast, in secondary education it is always specialist teachers who teach informatics as a separate subject. In lower secondary education, teachers with specialisation in other subjects are largely involved in teaching informatics (for instance teachers who specialise in mathematics, physics, or other sciences), whereas in upper secondary education, specialist informatics teachers are required in almost all EU education systems. See a 2022 Eurydice report on informatics education at school in Europe for an in-depth analysis of the current state of informatics education in Europe.

  • 145.See the 2022 Eurydice report on informatics education at school in Europe.

  • 146.Setting up and improving measures to recruit and train specialised teachers in the area of informatics is one of the recommendations to EU countries in the 2023 Commission proposal for a Council Recommendation on improving the provision of digital skills in education and training.

  • 147.This concerns both primary and secondary education in Greece, and upper secondary education in Italy (2023 Eurydice report). Monitor Toolbox

  • 148.An extra measure to recruit specialised teachers in the area of informatics and advanced digital technologies is mentioned in the 2023 Commission proposal for a Council Recommendation on improving the provision of digital skills in education and training. A recommendation to EU countries has been proposed to support a two-way exchange and collaboration between education and training institutions on the one hand and the private sector on the other, building upon initiatives such as the Pact for Skills and the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition. This type of exchange and collaboration would allow (1) professionals working in the digital sector (for instance in informatics) to support classroom teachers at primary or secondary level; and (2) specialised teachers to acquire specific skills in informatics and specific digital technology fields.

  • 149.The scope to provide informatics as a separate compulsory subject is limited in primary education. Nonetheless, five education systems (Bulgaria, Estonia, Lithuania, Romania, and Slovakia) offer alternative pathways to train specialist informatics teachers to teach at this level. Retraining schemes to equip other specialist teachers with the necessary skills to teach informatics is relatively widespread for lower secondary education (16 education systems) and upper secondary education (18 education systems), but opportunities are limited for primary education teachers (6 education systems). See the 2023 Eurydice report. Monitor Toolbox

  • 150.Monitor Toolbox

  • 151.In 2024, PISA 2022 microdata will be used to rebuild the EU-level indicator on equity in education, reveal the latest trends and inform estimates in the run up to 2030. In the meantime, this section uses PISA 2018 data whenever the equity indicator is mentioned.

  • 152.This dimension covers the highest level of educational attainment provided for a respondent’s parent(s) or legal guardian(s). In the current analysis, low-level educational attainment (lower secondary education at most) is compared against high-level educational attainment (tertiary education).

  • 153.This dimension covers the highest level of occupation provided for a respondent’s parent(s) or legal guardian(s). In the current analysis, a low-level occupation comprises plant and machine operators as well as assemblers, whereas a high-level occupation comprises managers, professionals, technicians, and associate professionals.

  • 154.Monitor Toolbox

  • 155.Monitor Toolbox

  • 156.For instance, not having a quiet place to study doubles a 15-year-old’s likelihood of underachieving in all three PISA assessments. Monitor Toolbox

  • 157.The number of books at home is reported by the students’ parents with the question: ‘About how many books are there in your home? (Do not count ebooks, magazines, newspapers, or children's books.)’.

  • 158.The disadvantage for men in 2022 as regards early school leaving figures is most evident in Estonia, Latvia, and Spain (all over 5 percentage points). Only in Bulgaria and Greece do young men record lower early school leaving rates than young women. Monitor Toolbox

  • 159.The disadvantage for men in 2022 as regards upper secondary educational attainment is most evident in Denmark (11.0 percentage points), Estonia (8.7), and Luxembourg (8.0). Again, only in Bulgaria and Greece do men record an advantage. Monitor Toolbox

  • 160.As for the EU-level indicator on equity in education, the language spoken at home is the best available proxy, as reported in the previous edition of the Education and Training Monitor. The underperformance gap between low-level and high-level socio-economic status is 20.9 percentage points when the test language is not spoken at home, compared to 17.4 percentage points when it is. Monitor Toolbox

  • 161.The disadvantage faced by second-generation migrants is significantly smaller in the EU on average. Young people born in the reporting country whose parents were born outside the EU record a 11.6% early school leaving rate on average. Monitor Toolbox

  • 162.The share would exceed 4% in Lithuania, Bulgaria, and Czechia and 5% in Poland if their enrolment rate were at the same level as that for the rest of the population under 18 residing in the country.

  • 163.The report presents findings from a 2021 survey on Roma in eight EU countries (Croatia, Czechia, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Portugal, Romania, and Spain). By focusing on Roma, the survey provides unique data and information that are not available from general population surveys, though caution is needed when interpreting the comparison of results.

  • 164.The EU Roma framework calls on EU countries to reduce the gap in upper secondary completion by at least one third and ensure that, by 2030, the majority of young Roma complete at least upper secondary education. EU countries should strengthen efforts to eliminate educational segregation and ensure that by 2030 fewer than 1 in 5 Roma children attend schools where most or all children are Roma.

  • 165.See also the 2023 European Commission issue paper on tackling different forms of discrimination in and through education and training.

  • 166.Young people with disabilities, for instance, have a much higher risk of early school leaving and are more likely to be neither in employment nor education and training (NEET). See a 2020 European Commission report on European comparative data on persons with disabilities.

  • 167.While gender equality is promoted through cooperation initiatives between education authorities and NGOs, strategic policy frameworks and national curricula, LGBTIQ+ students are rarely the focus of any targeted policies and measures aiming to promote diversity and inclusion in schools. See also the 2023 European Commission issue paper on gender inequality in and through education, and the 2023 European Commission progress report on implementing the LGBTIQ equality strategy.

  • 168.Teachers are, moreover, supported in diversity and inclusion challenges through, for instance, initial teacher education, continuing professional development and multidisciplinary support teams (Section 3.1).

  • 169.Additional financial support is also provided to schools enrolling disadvantaged students. Such measures are more prevalent, whether for some or all schools and whether automatic or not. Only Greece, Luxembourg, and Hungary provide no such additional support. See the 2023 Eurydice report. Monitor Toolbox

  • 170.See the 2023 Eurydice report. Monitor Toolbox

  • 171.Additional non-financial support is also provided to schools enrolling disadvantaged students. Across the EU, nine EU education systems offer non-financial support to all schools enrolling disadvantaged students, and another eight offer it to some schools. See the 2023 Eurydice report. Monitor Toolbox

  • 172.A diverse teacher workforce can have positive impacts on learners as it brings a unique perspective based on teachers’ life experiences, culture, and background, and because learners can identify themselves with the teachers they are learning from.

  • 173.Croatia, Cyprus, France, Germany, Ireland, Lithuania, and Spain. Most of the policies and measures promoting teacher diversity concern specific quotas reserved for people with disabilities in the public sector, including public schools.