European Commission

Education and Training Monitor 2023

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Comparative report

Chapter 4. Vocational education and training

EU-level 2025 target: ‘At least 60% of recent graduates from VET should benefit from exposure to work-based learning during their vocational education and training by 2025’.

4.1. Work-based learning, employability and learning mobility

Vocational education and training (VET) aims to equip young people and adults with the knowledge, skills, and competences required in specific occupations, or more broadly on the labour market. It covers a wide range of qualifications: initial VET at secondary level174, continuing VET for adults and vocationally oriented education and training at higher levels. Across the EU in 2021, just over half (52.1%) of students enrolled in medium-level education175 were in programmes with a vocational orientation. This proportion ranges from 17.6% in Cyprus to 70.0% in Austria176.

In 2022, 60.1% of recent VET graduates had been exposed to work-based learning177 during their education and training, meeting the 2025 target (Figure 23). The level recorded in 2022 is very similar to that of 2021 (60.6%), the first year these data became available178. Across the EU on average, recent VET graduates who had been exposed to work-based learning during VET were more likely to be employed (82.5% in 2022) than those who had not (71.6%).

The extent to which recent VET graduates were exposed to work-based learning varies considerably across countries. Work-based learning is near-universal (around 90% or above) in Spain, the Netherlands, Germany, and Austria. This proportion is below 30% in Romania, Poland, Czechia, Italy, and Ireland. Within most countries and across the EU on average, sex plays a relatively minor role (with a 2022 average proportion of 60.8% among men and 59.3% among women).

Figure 23. Three out of five recent VET graduates were exposed to work-based learning during their education and training.
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There are many ways to arrange of work-based learning, in terms of duration and remuneration. On average across the EU, two thirds of work-based learning in VET is paid and lasts 7 months or more179. This applies to several countries with relatively extensive work-based learning exposure, such as Germany, Austria, and the Netherlands, which account for a large proportion of the EU average180. Still, in 12 EU countries, the dominant form of work-based learning is unpaid and of short duration181. There are some other countries where the most common work experience is relatively short and paid182.

The prevalence of work-based learning depends on its place in VET curricula, but also on the availability of relevant opportunities in workplaces. The Continuing Vocational Training Survey of 2020 sheds light on the labour demand side of work-based learning183. Nearly one third (32.4%) of businesses184 in the EU employ participants in initial vocational training (IVT)185. Larger companies (250+ persons employed) are more likely to do so than medium-sized companies (50-249) or small companies (10-49), a gradient going from 58.5% to 43.6% to 29.3%186. Construction is the sector with the highest proportion of companies employing IVT participants (40.9%), followed by manufacturing (39.1%). For services sectors, the rate is below 30%187.

Box 15. VET for green and digital transitions

VET, with its close link to the labour market, plays a key role in providing workers and learners with skills required for the digital age and the move towards carbon neutrality. Many of the newly emerging jobs and activities require specific technical skills188, such as the ability to assemble and install renewable energy infrastructure, maintain ‘smart’ grids, carry out deep renovation of buildings making them energy efficient and digitally connected, and repair electric vehicles, including through software applications. VET and work-based learning are well suited to equip workers and learners with such skills, which are in growing demand, amid persistent shortages for technical and other profiles relevant to the transition towards climate neutrality.

The green and digital transitions are therefore expected to provide more job opportunities for VET learners in the coming years if the right accompanying measures are in place. VET programmes will need to be adapted to new needs requiring system-wide changes in their organisation and delivery. This includes all aspects, from changes in curricula, competences for teachers and trainers, to adaptation of learning venues and methods (schools, training centres or work-based learning sites)189.

Figure 24. EU countries planning VET measures by specific area concerning the digital and green transitions.
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Figure 24 summarises the number of EU education systems reporting activities in VET policies when it comes to the digital and green transitions, as based on EU countries’ national implementation plans190. Some countries report activities on nearly all areas for both green and digital (Austria, Germany, Hungary, and Malta). Others report none (Bulgaria and Cyprus). Some systems have a more digital profile (the French Community of Belgium, Greece, and Finland). Others have more activities related to the green transition (Denmark). Taken as a whole, this overview suggests that there is more widespread activity on the digital transition than the green transition191.

Figure 25 compares the 2022 employment rates of recent VET graduates with the last full set of pre-COVID-19 data (2019). After a volatile period linked to the pandemic, the employment rate of recent VET graduates is moving nearer to its target of 82% by 2025192. In 2022, the relevant employment rate stood at 79.7% and 11 EU countries had reached or exceeded the EU-level target (Luxembourg, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, Hungary, Denmark, Austria, Czechia, Malta, Portugal, and Poland). Among these countries, only the latter two had not yet attained this level before the COVID-19 pandemic. In the medium term, the best performing countries have shown a strong degree of resilience in sustaining high employment rates.

Figure 25. The employment rate of recent VET graduates is picking up after the COVID-19 pandemic.
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Female VET graduates tend to be employed at a lower rate than men, on average in the EU (3.5 percentage points) and in most countries. Whereas the biggest gap is recorded in the country with the lowest employment overall (23.6 percentage points in Romania), there are also very sizeable gaps among some of the better performers (14.6 percentage points in Sweden and 15.8 in Czechia), as well as among those nearer the EU average (11.4 percentage points in Poland and 13.2 in Slovenia). In seven countries, employment rates of VET graduates were lower among men than women, most noticeably in Estonia (8.5 percentage points) and Luxembourg (4.0).

Furthermore, learning mobility in VET is recovering from the COVID-19 pandemic, but remains substantially below the relevant target193. The pandemic resulted in an interruption in the upward trend in VET mobility over the 2014-20 period. Fewer than 33 000 mobility exchanges in line with the target definition took place in 2020, in contrast with the nearly 110 000 exchanges completed in 2019194. The year 2021 still suffered from the negative impact of the pandemic and only around 2% of the respective cohort of VET learners – around 56 000 participants – could benefit from a mobility experience in upper secondary education and post-secondary non-tertiary VET195. The number of applications in Erasmus+ in VET for learners continued increasing in 2022-23 and, with such growing demand, the EU is gradually moving closer to its 2025 target.

4.2. A closer look at teachers and trainers

Teaching and training professionals in VET cover a wide spectrum of roles and activities, including VET-specific elements such as practical training and work-based learning196. It is common to distinguish VET teachers and trainers by the place of learning, whether it is a classroom, training centre or workplace. The subject matter taught by the teachers ranges from more general subjects to occupation-specific technical subjects197. Moreover, the mode of teaching may be mostly theoretical or may include practical exercises. The specific job titles for VET teachers and trainers reflect the role of VET across sectors and occupations. Examples include vocational teachers in agriculture, hospitality or electronics and automation, instructors in the maritime or railway sectors, as well as trainers in the armed forces or the police198.

The qualification and training requirements for teaching professionals in VET vary, in line with their different roles and profiles. In most countries, a higher education degree is required to teach general subjects or theoretical vocational courses in VET schools. For staff teaching practical vocational subjects, the required qualifications generally include upper secondary education or a professional degree. In some countries, further requirements apply, such as professional experience, or a state exam or competition199. Continuing professional development is mandatory for VET teachers in 19 countries, whereas only 10 countries have such provisions in place for in-company trainers200.

Teaching professionals in VET may combine different roles, teaching and training both in school-based and work-based contexts, or working part-time in industry201. While such hybrid teaching is not limited to VET, it is more widespread in this field than in general education. Labour market data suggest that in most countries, it is more common for VET teachers to have a second job than for general education teachers202. Regulation of hybrid teaching seems to exist only in Belgium and Hungary, but the actual practice is relatively widespread, with combinations of some form or another observed in more than half of EU countries203. Hybrid teaching is seen as having several potential benefits, allowing teaching professionals to follow the latest developments in industry while increasing the attractiveness of the teaching profession204.

Classroom teachers in VET tend to be older than those in general education. In 2021, 44.2% of upper secondary VET teachers in the EU were aged 50 or older, compared to 40.8% among those teaching in general education205. Both in VET and in general upper secondary education, female teachers are overrepresented. The proportion of men is slightly higher in VET than general education (39.9% compared to 37.8% in 2021), although the difference between both forms has narrowed (from 5 percentage points in 2013, when the rates were 41.9% and 36.9% respectively)206.

Teacher shortages in VET have been reported in several countries. Shortages of ‘vocational education teachers’ have been reported in Belgium, Denmark, Estonia, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, and Sweden, with Slovenia reporting shortages in ‘teachers and assistants of vocational subjects’207. In addition, other sources have flagged current or future shortages for Germany and, in specific fields, for Finland208.

In a nutshell

In 2022, 60.1% of recent initial VET graduates experienced work-based learning during their education and training, reaching the 2025 EU-level target of at least 60%. Across the EU on average, recent VET graduates who experienced work-based learning during VET were more likely to be employed (82.5% in 2022) than those who had not (71.6%). After a volatile period linked to the COVID-19 pandemic, the employment rate of recent VET graduates (79.7% in 2022) is moving closer to the EU-level target of 82% by 2025. Learning mobility in VET is also recovering from the pandemic but remains considerably below target. Teaching professionals in VET are in high demand, with shortages reported in many countries.

Notes

  • 174.Challenges outlined in Chapter 3 apply to school-based initial VET at secondary level too.

  • 175.Upper secondary education and post-secondary non-tertiary education. Monitor Toolbox

  • 176.Male students form a majority in medium-level VET overall (56%) and in upper secondary VET (58,4%). In post-secondary non-tertiary VET, female learners are overrepresented (58,0%). For male students, the main field in medium-level VET is ‘engineering, manufacturing and construction’ (45%). For female students, the most common fields are ‘health and welfare’ (25%), services (22%) and business, administration, and law (22%). Monitor Toolbox

  • 177.Monitor Toolbox Work-based learning in this context refers to experience gained at a workplace (beyond or in addition to school-based learning or practical exercises at a training centre). Relevant work experience is part of the curriculum of the formal programme leading to a VET qualification (unlike most traineeships). Within these boundaries, there is a wide variety of experience in work-based learning. Work experience can take place in different sectors and types of workplaces (companies, government institutions or non-profit organisations), with varying duration (from 1 month to a year or more). Learners may work under different contractual statuses (dual learning with employment contract, apprenticeship) and conditions (paid or unpaid work experience). The indicator includes all VET graduates who left the VET programme 0-3 years ago, including those who are still in education and training, to cover the graduate population in the most comprehensive way possible while ensuring the quality and the precision of the indicator.

  • 178.The latest data can be considered as a further validation of the rates observed a year prior, including an additional EU country (Denmark) and with certain data reliability issues having been resolved (Hungary). However, with only two consecutive data collections available for the EU and most countries, it would be premature to read trends from these numbers. Moreover, the reference period for the actual work-based learning experiences is broader than a single calendar year. The data include young people who graduated over the previous 3 years, reporting on work-based learning experiences during their VET programme. Therefore, some cases took place more than 3 years prior to the year of data collection. As a result, even major shifts at the country level would be expected to show up as a gradual increase or reduction over several data releases. Moreover, self-reported data may be subject to underreporting, including in cases where work-based learning is a mandatory element of VET.

  • 179.This analysis categorises countries by the main forms of work-based learning (at least 50% of the relevant dichotomies: paid or unpaid, short, or long duration). Bulgaria, Latvia, and Ireland are not included in the analysis. Monitor Toolbox

  • 180.Other countries in this group are Denmark and Luxembourg. Monitor Toolbox

  • 181.Belgium, Czechia, Spain, Croatia, Italy, Lithuania, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Finland, and Sweden. Monitor Toolbox

  • 182.Estonia, Greece, France, Cyprus, Hungary, Malta, and Slovenia. Monitor Toolbox

  • 183.Monitor Toolbox

  • 184.Excluding micro-enterprises with fewer than 10 persons employed. According to Eurostat’s structural business statistics, in 2020, such micro-enterprises accounted for 93.5% of all businesses in the non-financial business economy, and for 29.2% of its employment.

  • 185.Across countries, the correlation between the exposure of VET graduates to work-based learning and companies employing IVT participants is not strong. Several countries have high rates using both indicators (Germany, the Netherlands, and Austria), or score low in both regards (Romania and Poland). But there are also outliers in different directions (Spain and Italy), which are linked to the different units of observation (businesses versus individuals).

  • 186.Micro-enterprises (10 persons employed or fewer) are not covered in these statistics, but likely have smaller shares.

  • 187.The main motivation for businesses in employing IVT participants is to train future employees according to the needs of the company (89.8% at EU level), and to select the best IVT participants for future employment (73.6%). The use of the productive capacities as such is cited less often (52.1%). Monitor Toolbox

  • 188.See the 2023 European Labour Authority report on labour shortages and surpluses, the Employment and Social Developments in Europe 2023 Annual Review on addressing labour shortages and skills gaps in the EU, and a 2021 Cedefop report on the green employment and skills transformation.

  • 189.EU-funded centres of vocational excellence will also be key to developing local ‘skills ecosystems’, working closely with businesses including SMEs, and contributing to regional development, entrepreneurship, innovation, industrial clusters, and smart specialisation strategies, including for the digital and green transition. The centres specialise in different areas of activity, from advanced manufacturing to artificial intelligence, and from water technology to urban greening.

  • 190.These national implementation plans were submitted for the 2020 Council Recommendation on VET, which set out key principles to ensure VET provides quality learning opportunities for young people and adults, as well as the 2020 Osnabrück Declaration on VET, which set out specific actions for 2021–25 at both national and EU level, focusing in particular on green and digital transitions. This summary builds on a 2023 Cedefop briefing note, focusing on how skills for the green and digital transitions have been addressed in the context of the national implementation plans.

  • 191.Most of these national implementation plans were submitted in May 2022, setting out activities until 2025 (including proposals until 2028 and a further outlook to 2030). Since the submission of the national implementation plans, there have been significant developments. The Council adopted two Recommendations in 2022 on learning for green transition and sustainable development and on ensuring a fair transition towards climate neutrality. VET and the green transition is a very dynamic area, which also features many bottom-up initiatives, as is evident from the ‘compendium of inspiring practices’ produced by the relevant Working Group under the EEA strategic framework. Work will continue in identifying possible good practices and promoting mutual learning. In 2023, the European Commission also adopted a proposal for a Council Recommendation on improving the provision of digital skills in education and training and a proposal for a Council Recommendation on the key enabling factors for successful digital education and training.

  • 192.Adopted as part of the 2020 Council Recommendation on VET. Across the EU on average, recent VET graduates who had been exposed to work-based learning during VET were more likely to be employed (82.5% in 2022) than those who had not (71.6%).

  • 193.The 2020 Council Recommendation on VET set the goal that by 2025 8% of VET learners should benefit from a learning mobility experience lasting a minimum of 10 days abroad. This is measured as the share of mobile VET learners in a calendar year, at upper secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education levels, as a proportion of the cohort of VET graduates at the same level of education in the same year. The source for mobility data is Erasmus+, whereas VET graduate data is extracted from the UOE data collection. The ambition to reach the target has been accompanied by increased resources to VET mobility in the 2021-27 Erasmus+ programme.

  • 194.Monitor ToolboxThe indicator refers to the number of VET learners in upper secondary education and post-secondary non-tertiary education from EU countries taking part in mobility experiences abroad, shown by the year in which their mobility experience started. The data include all VET learner mobility experiences that took place in that period, as reported by project beneficiaries. This includes mobility related to projects funded under the 2014-20 programming period that are finalised. The data were extracted in August 2023, from the Erasmus+ mobility records for the programming periods 2014-20.

  • 195.Monitor Toolbox

  • 196.For a recent analysis of vocational teachers and the student-vocational teacher ratio, see the OECD’s Education at a Glance 2023.

  • 197.A 2022 Cedefop briefing note distinguishes between (1) staff teaching general subjects in VET schools; (2) staff teaching VET-related subjects in VET schools (theory taught in classrooms and practical training taught in workshops); and (3) trainers teaching at workplaces. In the International Standard Classification of Occupations, those teaching general subjects in VET schools are considered general education teachers.

  • 198.According to the classification of European Skills, Competences, and Occupations.

  • 199.See a 2022 Cedefop briefing note.

  • 200.See a 2022 Cedefop briefing note.

  • 201.See a 2022 Cedefop synthesis report.

  • 202.See a 2021 OECD report on teachers and leaders in VET.

  • 203.Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechia, Germany, Estonia, France, Hungary, Lithuania, Latvia, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, and Portugal. See a 2022 Cedefop synthesis report.

  • 204.See the 2023 EENEE-NESET report used throughout Chapter 1.

  • 205.Conversely, teachers aged under 40 comprised 27.2% of general teachers, compared to 24.2% in VET. Monitor Toolbox

  • 206.Monitor Toolbox

  • 207.European Labour Authority 2023 report on labour shortages and surpluses. Based on data from EURES national coordination offices.

  • 208.See a 2021 OECD report on teachers and leaders in VET.