Country report

1. STEM education

The demand for STEM specialists exceeds supply, especially in ICT. The demand for STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) professionals is rising much faster than the supply of graduates from the education system, leading to a shortage of qualified specialists in these fields (CYD Foundation, 2024). According to the State Public Employment Service, Spain needs over 1.39 million additional ICT specialists to meet the EU Digital Decade 2030 target of 10% of total employment being in ICT sectors. This indicates that Spain, which stands currently at 4.4%, is unlikely to meet the target by 2030 (European Commission, 2024; SEPE, 2023). Meanwhile, although employment grew fastest in electricity and gas (+14.9%) and ICT (+10.3%) sectors in 2024, labour shortages persist in green and digital fields, where vacancies per worker exceed the average by 52% and 212%, respectively (OECD, 2024). This highlights a growing gap between skills supply and demand. Limited STEM enrolment restricts the system’s capacity to respond.

STEM enrolment at higher education level remains below EU average and even decreased in the last decade. In 2023, 24.7% of students in higher education were enrolled in STEM fields, marking a 1.2 p.p. drop since 2015. This stands below the EU average of 26.9% and falls short of the proposed EU target of 32%. Engineering dominated STEM enrolments, making up 51.2% of all students in STEM, followed by ICT (26.9%) and natural sciences and mathematics (21.9%). In 2023, ICT accounted for only 2.4% of total PhD enrolments, below the EU average (3.8%) and the proposed EU target of 5%. While high-level VET showed a STEM enrolment of 30.7% (EU: 26%), only 28.3% of students in medium-level VET were enrolled in STEM fields (EU: 36.3%, EU-level target: 45%).

Despite progress, gender inequalities persist across STEM fields affecting enrolment. In 2023, 28.6% of higher education students enrolled in STEM were women, representing one of the lowest shares in the EU, below the EU average of 32.2% and the proposed EU target of 40%. Women made up 47.8% of students enrolled in natural sciences and mathematics (EU: 51.5%), 27.1% in engineering (EU: 27.7%) and only 15.9% in ICT (EU: 20.3%). Narrowing the gender gap in ICT could help Spain reach its above-mentioned 2030 Digital Decade targets. Moreover, just 11.2% of students in medium-level VET were women (EU: 15.4%, EU-level target: 25%). At the PhD level, women are somewhat better represented than in medium-level VET and lower tertiary education levels,

Spain does not have a specific STEM strategy but implements a digital skills plan as well as various STEM initiatives. Spain launched the National Digital Skills Plan in 2021, allocating a budget of EUR 3.75 billion to boost digital competences across education, training and the workforce, focusing on bridging the gender digital divide (European Commission, 2023). This Plan is supported by Spain’s Recovery and Resilience Plan (RRP) and part of broader efforts to promote the digital transformation and address labour market shortages in STEM-related fields. Organic Law 3/2022 on the organisation and integration of vocational training, which is also supported by the RRP, created a new AI and data VET track and integrated sustainability and digital modules across all programmes. In addition, the RRP supported the integration of 50 centres into the newly created National Network of Centres of Vocational Training and will support the conversion of 1 253 classrooms into technological classrooms. Spain is also implementing initiatives like the STEAM Alliance for female talent, which promotes STEAM vocations in girls and young women, and ChicaSTEM, boosting participation of women and girls of all ages in technical fields. They offer information and resources to raise awareness and interest and encourage women and girls to go into STEM fields.

2. Early childhood education and care

Spain has one of the highest enrolment rates in early childhood education and care (ECEC) in the EU. ECEC participation of children from age three to the compulsory schooling age has surpassed the EU-level target of 96%. (97.7% vs EU: 94.6 in 2023). Spain is also among the EU countries with the highest participation rates in formal childcare for the 0-2 age group (55% vs EU: 39.3% in 2024.). It has increased from 39.8% in 2015, as a result of sustained investments in the expansion of capacities, including with the support of the European Regional Development and the Recovery and Resilience Facility. From the age of three, places in publicly subsidised ECEC are guaranteed free of charge. The gap between the end of childcare leave and a guaranteed ECEC place is two and a half years but plans to increase childcare leave have been announced. In addition, initiatives have been introduced to promote ECEC in areas with small overall population, high shares of migrants, lower housing costs, and limited basic services (European Commission, 2025b).

Spain is working towards extending the participation of disadvantaged children. Spain has one of the highest proportions of children under the age of six who are at risk of poverty and social exclusion (34.1% compared to EU average of 23.5%). The risk increased by 5.6 p.p. since 2015 (vs a decrease by 1.3 p.p. in the EU average). Children at risk of poverty below the age of three tend to participate less (41.1%) than their peers (55%). However, this figure is still significantly higher than the EU average (23.6%). Spain targets these children through fee reductions and priority admission, together with children with special education needs, children with disabilities, and children with siblings in ECEC or the same setting (European Commission, 2025b).

To ensure quality, ECEC institutions are required to have specialised staff. In ECEC settings, one member of staff must hold an ISCED 6 (bachelor’s) qualification in childcare. That person is responsible for the pedagogical plan and coordinating the team. Aspiring heads of ECEC institutions must have previous experience in ECEC and completed a structured training process (including management training) before becoming leaders. They are also required to take a refresher course after eight years (European Commission, 2025b).

3. School education and basic skills

A low level of top performance and overall weak literacy, numeracy, and science skills pose a risk to competitiveness. Although the increase in underachievement between the 2018 and 2022 OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) rounds was lower in Spain than in most other EU countries, more than a quarter (27.3%, EU: 29.5%) of 15 year-olds does not reach a basic level in mathematics, a quarter in reading (24.4%, EU: 26.2%), and every fifth in science (21.3%, EU: 24.2%). Moreover, the share of top-performers is well below the EU average at 5.9% in mathematics (vs EU: 7.9%) and 4.9% in science (vs EU: 6.9%), reducing the pool of candidates for STEM professions. In the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 2023 survey, Spanish fourth grade primary students performed below the EU average (498 points in mathematics (vs EU: 514) and 504 in science (vs EU: 513 points). Only 4.2% reach an advanced level in mathematics and 3.9% in science, confirming the worrying trend. At the same time, compared to other EU countries, Spanish students show a strong sense of belonging. They feel more accepted and valued than the most other students in the EU. Moreover, the TIMSS international study shows that Spanish schools are among the safest, most orderly, and friendliest in terms of school environment (Ministry of Education, VET and Sports 2024b).

Too many students do not demonstrate a sufficient level of computer and information literacy to navigate in the digital world. The International Computer and Information Literacy Study (ICILS) tests the computer and information literacy of students in the second grade of lower secondary education (14 years of age). In 2023, Spanish students achieved an average of 495 points scoring closely to the EU average (493) (Ministry of Education, VET and Sports 2024a). Underachievement in digital skills, i.e. the share of students not reaching level 2 in ICILS, is higher in Spain (44.4%) than the EU average (42.5%) and far from the EU-level target of 15% (European Commission, 2025a). This means that far too many students are unable to ‘use computers to complete basic and explicit information gathering and management tasks and to create simple information products that reflect standard design and layout conventions’ (Fraillon, 2024). To improve digital literacy, Spain has launched the Plan for Digitalisation and Digital Skills in the Education System (Plan #DigEdu), allocating more than EUR 1.66 billion. The plan envisages 300 000 portable devices to be delivered by the autonomous communities, interactive digital systems to be installed in 240 000 classrooms throughout the country, and the accreditation of digital competences of 560 000 teachers.

Spanish eighth graders score around the EU average in civic competences and show a strong European identity. 64.9% (vs EU: 63.1%) of students showed appropriate knowledge and understanding of the most pervasive civic and citizenship institutions, systems, and concepts. With 32 p.p., Spain has the third smallest performance gap in the EU (39 p.p.) between students from low and high socio-economic background (Ministry of Education, 2023). In Spain, exposure to media information was very positively associated with civic knowledge, as was students’ perception of having learned about civic matters in school, and having experience with voting (Schulz et al., 2023). In addition, out of the participating countries Spanish students reported the highest share of feeling part of the EU (90%, average: 81%) and 95% reported identifying as European (Damiani et al., 2024).

A ban on smartphones is becoming more widespread in schools. In Spain, the rules on mobile phone use in primary and secondary classrooms differs across autonomous communities. About half of the regions adopted general bans while others have flexible rules or leave it to individual schools to deal with it. Compared to other EU countries, Spanish students also experience more parental controls regarding on-screen use: 58% of students report having a screen time limit at home on school days and 32% on non-school days (EU average 41% and 25%) (Ministry of Education, VET and Sports 2024a).

Fewer students are leaving school early than a decade ago, but this remains a key challenge. The share of early leavers from education and training dropped from 20.0% in 2015 to 13.0% in 2024. This is the lowest level recorded, although it remains well above the EU average of 9.4%.Disparities persist in terms of gender (15.8% for men vs 10.0% for women) and regions. However, regions with lower economic development have drastically reduced their drop-out rates (Ministry of Education, VET and Sports, 2024c). To address early school leaving, as recommended by the Council (2025), the State School Council has developed an action plan, proposing measures such as extending the compulsory schooling age up to 18 years-old, improving student grants (in terms of amount and eligibility), and ring-fencing education spending at 5.5% of GDP (Consejo Escolar del Estado, 2025).

Efforts to modernise the teaching profession in terms of teacher education, career development, and working conditions are progressing. Reforms are underway to modernise the teaching profession through four national working groups to address (i) teacher competences and initial education; (ii) recruitment and access; (iii) continuous professional development; and (iv) working conditions. The first working group has developed a common framework for the professional competences of teachers and a self-reflection model to obtain information about the level of acquisition of these competences (Ministry of Education, VET and Sports, 2025b).

Financial support is granted to students and their families affected by the DANA floods in October 2024. The floods that struck the Valencian Community in October 2024 caused severe damage to the education system, affecting 169 000 children, damaging over 100 schools, and leaving 24 000 students temporarily without access to their regular schools. A total of EUR 600 000 in direct aid grants has been approved in the Royal Decree-Law 8/2024, which grants financial support amounting to EUR 600 for each student whose home or study centre has been affected. The amount is for covering the costs of replacing textbooks and school or study materials.

4. Vocational education and training

VET enrolment in Spain is lower than the EU average at medium level but higher at higher level. In 2023, high-level VET enrolment reached 25.8% of all tertiary enrolments (EU: 7.7%). This reflects the growing appeal of higher-level VET, which offers a direct pathway to university-level education. By contrast, only 40.0% of students were enrolled in medium-level VET (EU 52.4%). At medium level, students mostly specialised in health (30.5%), business (18.7%) and engineering (16.7%), similarly to higher-level VET, where they focused on the same fields with 21.6%, 20.1%, and 15.1%, respectively. These choices could mirror medium-term labour market signals. Between 2019 and 2024, the fastest-growing sectors were ICT (+37.5%), health (+21.5%), and professional services (+20.4%). However, the underrepresentation of STEM, particularly in medium-level VET (see Section 1) highlights a misalignment with strategic priorities. To increase STEM enrolment in VET, Spain is investing EUR 67 million from the ESF+ under STEP to fund specialisation courses in green and digital skills and better align VET with future labour market needs.

Despite ongoing efforts, medium-level VET continues to be seen as a less attractive option compared to academic pathways. In 2024, only 10.1% of adults aged 25 to 64 in Spain held a medium-level VET qualification, standing far below the EU average of 34.6%. This limited uptake is mirrored in weaker employment outcomes. The employment rate for recent medium-VET graduates in 2024 stood at 68.6%, well below the EU average (80.0%) and the 2025 EU-level target (82%). By contrast, tertiary graduates had higher employment rates (83.9%), closer to the EU average (86.7%). The more modest labour market outcomes for medium-level VET graduates could help explain students’ growing interest in higher-level VET.

Spain is modernising its VET system through dual training, updated qualifications, and stronger alignment with labour market needs. Under the Organic Law 3/2022, all programmes became progressively dual from the 2024/2025 academic year, with full dualisation by 2025/2026 to improve employability and reduce skills mismatches (see Box). The law also introduced specialisation courses, VET master’s degrees, and modules on sustainability, digitalisation, and career planning. This development is in line with the 2025 Council recommendation calling for Spain to strengthen dual vocational education and training and increase lifelong learning to reduce skills shortages and mismatches. In 2025, Spain completed the formal process of referencing its qualifications system to the European Qualification Framework. Curricula are being updated through sectoral hubs and the Alliance for Vocational Training. Continued monitoring and stakeholder involvement could be beneficial to align training provision and labour market needs.

5. Tertiary education

Tertiary educational attainment is on the rise but the mismatch with the labour market persists. With a share of 52.6% of 25-34 year-olds holding a tertiary degree (EU: 44.1%), Spain already reached the EU-level target of 45%. However, the high number of graduates cannot be absorbed by the Spanish labour market, leading to the highest overqualification rate in the EU. In 2024, 35.0% of tertiary graduates aged 20 to 64 were employed in low-skilled jobs, compared to the EU average of 21.9%. Although this figure has improved over the past decade, there remains a mismatch between graduates’ qualifications and labour market needs, with women experiencing a greater level of mismatch than men (CYD Foundation, 2024). A major challenge is the low employability of graduates in humanities, social studies and arts. To align education offer with labour market demand, a microcredentials programme, with an allocation of EUR 50 million, has been launched.

Tuition fees are reduced in higher education for 2024/2025, but inequality persists. Tuition fees are considered among the key financial constraints posing challenges especially for students from lower socio-economic backgrounds, who are at a higher risk of dropout (ENESET, forthcoming). The Spanish Government has increased university scholarships by 81.8% since 2018 and some regions have developed programs without tuition fees, especially for undergraduate programs. At Spanish public universities, the average cost for students of undergraduate degrees in 2024/2025 was the lowest on record: EUR 15.37 per ECTS credit for first enrolment. Average tuition fees for master’s degrees range from EUR 15.76 to EUR 30.04 per credit. Tuition fees are higher for students who have failed the first year of study (Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities, 2025).

The share of international students coming to Spain to obtain a degree remains stable. In 2023, 4.6% of all graduates were international students participating in degree mobility (4.5% in 2022). Almost half (49.2%) came from the Caribbean, Central and South America. Of the 26.9% that came from other EU countries, 53.8% were French, 21.9% Italian, and 7.6% German. The share of Spanish students participating in credit mobility to complete parts of their degree abroad increased to 7.2% in 2023 (0.7 p.p. more than in 2022), with another 2.2% taking part in degree mobility (2.2% in 2022). In 2023, the most popular countries for Spanish students undertaking outward credit mobility were Italy (21.5%), Poland (8.5%), and France (7.5%). Within Erasmus +, in 2024/2025, more than 65 000 students travelled to Spain and approximately 55 000 Spanish students went abroad. However, the internationalization of Spanish universities remains a major challenge.

6. Adult skills and learning

Adult learning participation in Spain remains below the 2030 target, with gaps most evident among older adults and the low-skilled. In 2022, 34.1% of adults participated in learning over the previous 12 months, compared to an EU average of 39.5% and well below the national 2030 target of 60%. Participation was particularly low among low-skilled adults (15.4%) and those over 55 (23.4%). However, the percentage of adult women participating in training exceeds that of adult men significantly. On the other hand, in 2024 participation in the last four weeks continues to grow and exceeds the EU average (16.0% vs 13.3%). However, foundational skill gaps and persistent inequalities hinder progress. According to the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC), Spain scored below the EU average in literacy, numeracy, and problem-solving, with one in five adults performing poorly in all three categories.

Spain faces persistent skills polarisation that current adult learning efforts are not yet fully addressing. In 2024, 42.0% of adults held tertiary qualifications (EU: 36.1%) and 35.1% had low-level qualifications (EU: 19.6%), while only 22.9% had intermediate qualifications representing the lowest share in the EU (EU: 44.3%). This imbalance points to misalignments between education pathways and labour market needs, with 35.0% of workers being overqualified, especially among the foreign-born. Although macroeconomic skills mismatches declined slightly in 2024, they remain high at 22.9%. Adult learning has yet to close these gaps and improve basic competences among low-skilled adults. In 2024, only 7% of unemployed adults accessed PES-funded training, while in 2022 most jobseekers received only diagnosis services (Fundae, 2025). SMEs underuse training credits and struggle to identify their skills needs. While initiatives like #DigEdu, micro-credentials, and planned Individual Learning Accounts aim to broaden access, stronger coordination, improved labour market alignment and more robust skills intelligence are needed to better support vulnerable groups.

Spain is advancing adult learning through structural reforms and investment. Royal Decree 86/2025 introduced procedures to validate informal and non-formal learning, potentially benefiting up to 10 million adults, many of whom lack certified skills. These efforts, combined with targeted upskilling, aim to support labour market re-entry, especially for low-skilled adults. Organic Law 3/2022 integrated education and labour-oriented VET, yet the pending reform of Law 30/2015 still offers an opportunity to modernise training for employment. Law 3/2023 established multiannual funding (2026-2029) to stabilise the implementation of active labour market policy, including support for AI, algorithm training, and climate risk prevention. To support this reform, Spain is mobilising over EUR 1.3 billion from the ESF+ to promote green and digital jobs and skills.