Education and Training Monitor 2023

1. The teaching profession

The Netherlands faces staff shortages in all sectors of education. In 2021/22, 9.5% of teaching and 13.6% of principal positions were vacant in primary education (OCW, 2022a). The greatest shortages are in the big urban areas (Amsterdam, The Hague, Rotterdam, Utrecht and Almere), in special education, in schools with a disadvantaged student population and in schools assessed as very weak by the Inspectorate of Education. In secondary education, the lack of qualified staff varies by subject and is the most pronounced for mathematics, IT, science, Dutch and foreign languages. Shortages often oblige schools to use emergency solutions such as employing teachers not yet qualified, merging classes or asking pupils to stay home for a day (OCW, 2021). According to recent reports (Casteren et al., 2021), the teaching profession has a low level of prestige. In response, researchers recommend promoting understanding of teachers’ value for society (Meijer et al., 2022). In 2021, 25.5% of teachers were 55 years old or over (against the EU average of 24.4%). Although the financing system enables schools with more at-risk populations to hire more staff, it is unclear to what extent they have used this facility and to what effect (Driessen, 2019).

The government closely monitors the figures on teacher shortages. Since October 2021, the Ministry of Education has published structural trend reports focusing on primary education, secondary education and post-secondary non-tertiary education. In addition, the Ministry of Education has invested in real-time data collection and research on current labour market shortages in education. The research institute Centerdata surveys school boards in primary education directly and annually across the country to get a precise picture of current shortages, instead of relying on estimates or forecasts. There are plans to develop a similar annual survey for secondary education, and the Ministry is also exploring ways to look into current teaching shortages in post-secondary non-tertiary education.

The Netherlands has taken several measures to make the teaching profession more attractive. In July 2022, it announced a comprehensive teacher strategy, in which the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science (OCW) assessed the measures taken to date and proposed possible further actions (see Box 1). The Education Agreement made in April 2022 between OCW and the trade unions and sectoral organisations involves closing the salary gap between primary and secondary school teachers. This involves the government setting aside EUR 919 million a year for this on a regular basis (OCW, 2022a). The agreement also contains commitments for additional funding to reduce the workload in secondary education (EUR 300 million) and more funding for continuous professional development (EUR 118 million). These funds are also designed to finance better professional guidance and personal support for novice teachers in schools. There is also a new ‘labour market allowance’ (arbeidsmarkttoelage) for teachers who teach at disadvantaged schools and/or schools with large numbers of pupils who are behind on language skills or require extra support due to special needs. This allowance functions as a top-up on teachers’ salaries. In addition, all teachers receive more time for professional development, and the offer of professional development programmes in universities is set to be expanded (Van Miltenburg et al., 2022). The position of teachers’ personal assistant was brought in to assist teachers in secondary education in preparing classes or materials or helping to tutor smaller groups of pupils. These assistants are usually university students with no teacher or teaching assistant qualification.

The Netherlands has expanded the supply of both initial teacher education and continuous professional development. In 2022, three universities started offering initial teacher education programmes, in addition to the regular programmes run by universities of applied sciences. These are designed for students who want to become teachers and acquire a scientific diploma (OCW, 2022c). In addition, the Ministry and the sectoral representatives in higher education have agreed to make initial teacher education more flexible to include people who come from other jobs. This will include recognising previously acquired skills, a modular curriculum and new academic training routes in primary education. In addition to regular continuous professional development, teachers can apply for a teacher scholarship. This enables them to obtain a Bachelor’s or Master’s degree while on the job. An evaluation of the efficiency and effectiveness of the scheme showed positive results (CAOP, MOOZ en Centerdata, 2022). On average, nearly 80% of all scholarship recipients have completed their education with a degree. School leaders indicated that the scheme promotes the professionalisation of teachers in their organisation.

2. Early childhood education and care

Participation in early childhood education and care (ECEC) from age 3 is higher than the EU average and the Netherlands has recently invested in improving the quality and participation time. From age 3, 93.0% of children in the Netherlands participate in ECEC, above the EU average (92.5%) but below the EU-level target (96%) for 2030. A special form of ECEC is the early childhood education scheme for disadvantaged children. This scheme uses a specially developed programme designed mainly to stimulate the cognitive, socio-emotional and motor development of children from around 2 years old until they start primary school. It is designed for children either with a migration background, whose parents have low education levels, for families who do not speak Dutch at home or a combination of the above. A national study showed that the educational disadvantage of participating children compared to non-target group children narrowed during pre-school (Veen and Leseman, 2022). The study also showed that development at a younger age, in the pre-school period, is greater than at a later age in the early years of schooling and that the programme also has positive effects in the medium and long term. While the number of participating children from the target group remained stable between 2019 and 2021, the number of available places fell between 2020 and 2021. The shortages are greater in moderately and highly urban areas (28.6%), which may put at risk the development of children who most need these services (Inspectorate, 2023).

3. School education

The share of early school leavers is below the EU average but it has increased slightly. At 5.6%, the Netherlands is well below the EU-level ceiling (less than 9%) for early leavers from education and training, but this is higher than the historic low of 2021 (5.1%). National data on the number of young people dropping out from school each year without obtaining a basic qualification also indicates a comparable trend, only briefly broken during the years of school closures linked to the pandemic (Fig. 1). The related target set in the regional strategy for early school leaving for 2020-2024 is to reduce the number of dropouts to below 20 000 in a school year. The increase is greatest in vocational secondary education (mbo). The share of early leavers among pupils with a non-Western migrant background dropped from 5.7% in 2010/2011 to 3.5% in 2020/2021 and from 2.6% to 1.8% among pupils of Dutch origin over the same period (NJI, 2023). Based on the recent increase, the government initiated new actions to reduce the number of early school leavers (OCW, 2023a).

Figure 1: Yearly number of dropouts, 2013-2022

Pupils have only partly caught up on lost learning due to the COVID-related school closures. Results from the 2022 end-of-primary school tests show that students have made up the gaps in reading comprehension (Inspectorate, 2023). However, there are major lags in spelling and mathematics for all students, corresponding to on average 15 weeks in a school year. Learning gaps in maths are wider for pupils whose parents have a low educational attainment (OCW, 2023b). In secondary education, more final year students failed the Dutch language exam than in 2021. In the lower years of secondary education, learning gaps in Dutch reading skills and arithmetics worsened in 2021/2022.

Figure 2: Average scores in PIRLS reading performance in the Netherlands, 2001-2021

Pupils’ reading skills have declined in international comparison. Fourth-grade pupils performed less well at reading comprehension than in the previous cycles of the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) (Figure 2). For the first time in fifteen years, the performance of Dutch pupils was below the EU average in 2021. Although between 2011 and 2016 there was hardly any difference in the results, performance fell steeply between 2016 and 2021, during which time the share of low achievers nearly doubled¹ (European Commission, 2023). This worsening trend is also confirmed by national tests (Inspectorate, 2023). The performance gap between pupils of lower and higher socio-economic status is lower than the EU average (scoring 62 against 80). As school performance correlates with pupil well-being at school, it is alarming that over 30% of pupils participating in PIRLS in the Netherlands reported being bullied every month, 24% experienced cyber-bullying and 30% frequently arrived at school tired or hungry.

The government has increased funding for the programme to improve basic skills. Over the long term, several national and international surveys have identified a downward trend in pupils’ basic skills, including the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). In the 2022 Coalition Agreement, the cabinet committed itself to investing EUR 1 billion a year in education quality (Government, 2022). Against this background, it launched a basic skills master plan for early childhood education, primary, secondary and vocational education in May 2022. The plan promotes Dutch reading and writing skills, mathematics, citizenship education and digital literacy. In March 2023, the minister announced an increase in these funds of EUR 216 million, on top of the 400 million already earmarked for the plan (OCW, 2023c). According to the ministry, this will support approximately 2 200 schools and 650 000 students. Participating schools will receive EUR 500 per student to improve basic skills, under the condition that they use methods proven to be effective such as smaller class sizes, encouragement to read, continuing professional development for teachers and new teaching methods.

The Netherlands brought in free school meals in 2022/2023. In the context of the current high inflation rates, the government brought in a subsidy in October 2022 to fund school breakfasts and/or lunch for primary and secondary schools where over 30% of pupils come from low-income families. The subsidy scheme should prevent about 300 000 pupils from being hungry in class, which undermines their school performance.

Admission rules to secondary education have been revised to promote equal opportunities. Under the progression exam law adopted in February 2022, there will be one central registration week in March, starting from 2023/2024. Pupil’s orientation advice issued by their primary school in January will be adjusted upwards if the pupil performs better in the progression exam in February. This exam replaces the central final exam in primary education. The aim is to give pupils who receive a low assessment from their primary school another chance to progress to a higher secondary track if they pass the test.

Progress through secondary education has been made easier. Pupils obtaining a certain diploma in Dutch secondary education can advance to a higher secondary programme up to general upper-secondary education level. According to studies, the pupils benefiting most from this system are girls, students with a migration background (Figure 3) and students in the lowest and the highest 20% of income background (KIS, 2021). In 2020, the Netherlands brought in the legal right to progress (doorstroomrecht) to allow lower secondary VET (vmbo-g/t) students who have passed their final exams with an extra subject to progress automatically to general upper-secondary education (havo) and to graduates from general upper-secondary education (havo) to pre-university education (vwo). The new regulation also stipulates that havo and vwo schools are not allowed to distinguish between progression students and other students in their admission policy. This resulted in an increase in pupils advancing to havo and vwo in 2021/2022 (Inspectorate, 2023).

Education services for newly arrived migrants have changed considerably since the outbreak of the war on Ukraine. In the Netherlands, newly arrived migrants and refugees are usually placed in separate classes for 1-2 years. Here the focus is on language learning; teaching is provided by teachers specialised in teaching the language of schooling as a second language. Under this approach, it is recommended that the first language is taught and used to teach other curriculum subjects (European Commission, 2022b). Afterwards, the children join state schools, which receive extra funding and professional support. Between February 2022 and May 2023, 18 600 Ukrainian children were enrolled in newcomer education at primary and secondary level (DUO, 2023). This is 91% of all registered school-age children (4-17 year-olds) coming from Ukraine in this period. As there was not enough capacity in state schools and preparatory classes for them, the Netherlands opened temporary education facilities in April 2022. These are exempt from some regulations regarding teacher qualifications, the education provided and teaching hours. For example, Ukrainian teachers without Dutch language knowledge can have their professional qualifications as a teacher recognised temporarily and be employed formally as a teacher. These schools are expected to close at the end of 2023/2024.

4. Vocational education and training

Strengthening vocational education and training (VET) is a priority of the new government. The majority of pupils in upper secondary education take part in VET programmes (68.7% in 2021)². Nearly all recent graduates received work-based learning during their vocational education and training (95.1% in 2022), one of the highest rates in the EU (on average 60.1%). The labour market prospects of VET learners are very good: 92.8% of recent secondary level VET graduates were employed in 2022, exceeding the EU average of 79.7%. In July 2022, the government published the outline for a new agenda for VET for 2023-2027 (OCW, 2022d). It focuses on ensuring equal opportunities, improving the connection between education and the labour market and boosting quality, research and innovation. To strengthen the apprenticeship and internship schemes, the ministries responsible for education, training and employment signed an internship pact with stakeholders from the education and business sectors (Stagepact, 2023) in February 2023. The pact will run until 2027 and will focus on four aspects: improving guidance, eliminating discrimination, providing sufficient placements and providing paid internships. As of 1 July 2023, educational institutions can apply for a subsidy to develop and implement connecting training paths from lower secondary education to VET or higher education. The goal is to enable students to make a smooth transition to vocational programmes in sectors where there are shortages: technology, housing, healthcare, education, climate and energy, safety and childcare. The Netherlands has set aside EUR 150 million for this scheme (DUS-I, 2023).

5. Higher education

The tertiary attainment rate is among the highest in the EU. 56.4% of the population aged 25-34 holds a tertiary degree (EU: 42.0%). The proportion of highly skilled women in this age group is 8.3 percentage points higher than for men (EU average: 11.1 percentage points). The attainment rate among the EU-born population from outside the Netherlands (58.8%) is even higher than that of the Dutch-born population (57.4%), suggesting that the Netherlands attracts high-skilled people from other Member States. Tertiary attainment is also relatively high among the non-EU-born population (48.2%; EU average 35.7%). The employment rate of recent tertiary graduates is very high, at 94.3% (EU average 86.7%). This rate is very similar for recent secondary graduates of vocational education and training too (at 92.8%).

Enrolments in higher education fell last year and drop-outs increased. In the 2022-2023 academic year, the number of first-year students in higher education fell for the first time. This drop was less marked at universities (WO) than colleges (HBO) due to higher enrolment rates from international students. Dropout rates increased both at universities and colleges in 2021/2022 (Education Inspectorate, 2023e). This may be linked to the alleviation measures, such as the 2019/2020 decision to stop the binding study advice, which, if negative, obliges students to leave the programme if they fail to meet the requirements set for the first year of their study programme. In addition, higher drop-out rates can be linked to the increase in the number of international students. The drop-out rate of international students is higher than for Dutch students (Education Inspectorate, 2022c).

In June 2023, Parliament voted to reinstate study grants as of the next academic year. The grant replaces the loan system, which has been in effect since 2015. The idea behind that system was that students with well-to-do parents do not need government money to pay their tuition fees and that the savings could improve the quality of education. But over time, there has been increasing criticism of the loan system: many students built up large debts, creating stress for many students. Thus, the proposal to Parliament was to bring back a basic grant for all students and an income-related supplement. People who have studied during the student loan system will receive an allowance of EUR 1 436 as compensation. Dutch students are eligible for a basic grant (standard amount) and a supplementary grant (parental income-tested amount), an interest bearing loan, a student card for public transport and a tuition fees loan.

The government is proposing measures to steer the number of incoming international students. The number of international students has continued to rise over the last 20 years, reaching 40% at universities. This has led to problems with accommodation, increased workload for staff and reduced access to certain study programmes. In a letter to Parliament in March 2023, the minister responsible for higher education announced his intention to manage international enrolments in higher education at central level. He asked institutions to keep and expand the use of Dutch in their programmes and to recruit international students only for fields linked to skills shortages (OCW, 2023d). The minister stressed that it is not possible to take a uniform solution and that differentiation is necessary for strategic growth sectors; those with shortages and for universities located close to the German and Belgian borders. He proposed a new act on language measures, promoting Dutch language skills for all students, including international students (OCW, 2023e). All Bachelor and associate degree programmes in which more than one third of all credits are obtained on non-Dutch courses would be assessed and permission to deliver the programme would be linked to a series of criteria. The legislation also proposes setting a ceiling on the number of students from outside the European Economic Area and allows the minister to intervene as a last resort.

Student well-being is at risk. Almost 1 in 4 students in VET and higher education report having poor to very poor mental health. In higher education, Bachelor’s and full-time students report experiencing poor mental health more often than other groups (OCW, 2022b). Mental disorders (anxiety, mood and substance disorders) have become twice as common among students: from 22% in 2007-2009 to 44% in 2019-2022 (Ten Have et al., 2022). A high share of international students experience negative emotions such as loneliness and report feeling stressed even more often or always (Nuffic, 2022). To give students more room in the first year to adjust to a degree programme and create a better balance between student well-being and progress in their studies, the coalition agreement announced that it would revise the binding study advice (bsa). In this context, the government announced recently that the bsa would become more flexible.

6. Adult learning

The participation rate in adult learning is high but tackling the low literacy rate remains a priority. 26.4% of the population aged 25-64 years participated in learning activities in 2022. (EU average: 11.9%)³. However, the participation rate is uneven across groups. People with a lower education level, people on temporary or flexible contracts, the self-employed and people with other obligations such as (informal) care are less likely to engage both in formal and informal educational activities. In September 2022, the government presented a follow-up plan (SZW/OCW, 2022) to the 2020 lifelong learning strategy covering labour market measures and education reforms. The plan aims to stimulate the learning and development culture and to reverse the trend of stagnating participation in education and training. To achieve this aim, the government drew up three coherent policy lines to encourage individuals, companies and training providers to invest in their own development, continue learning, build resilience and be responsive to the needs of the labour market.

The government is investing in lifelong learning under a range of projects. It launched the SLIM scheme in 2020 to encourage employers, mainly SMEs, to invest in learning culture, with a yearly budget of EUR 49 million. Between March 2020 and January 2023, it had already awarded nearly 4 000 grants under this scheme. Another measure co-financed through the National Growth Fund is the project ‘CompetentNL’, with a budget of EUR 25 million. It aims to draft a national standard in the description of skills, by combining profession descriptions with certifiable units in secondary vocational education. This intersectoral skills language will be compatible with the European skills language ‘European Skills, Competences, Qualifications and Occupations’ (ESCO) and will be publicly available to facilitate adoption by public and private-sector stakeholders. The Dutch recovery and resilience plan also covers investments related to VET and adult learning via the ‘Regional Mobility Teams’ (EUR 25 million) and the ‘Netherlands continues to learn’ programme (EUR 95 million). They aim to boost upskilling and reskilling opportunities, for instance through the provision of career advice.