Education and Training Monitor 2022

1. Key Indicators

Figure 1: Key indicators overview

Sources: Eurostat (UOE, LFS, COFOG); OECD (PISA). Further information can be found in Annex I and at Monitor Toolbox. Notes: The 2018 EU average on PISA reading performance does not include ES; the indicator used (ECE) refers to early-childhood education and care programmes which are considered by the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) to be ‘educational’ and therefore constitute the first level of education in education and training systems – ISCED level 0; the equity indicator shows the gap in the share of underachievement in reading, mathematics and science (combined) among 15-year-olds between the lowest and highest quarters of socio-economic status; b = break in time series, d = definition differs, e = estimated, u = low reliability, : = not available, 09 = 2009, 13 = 2013, 18 = 2018, 20 = 2020.

Figure 2: Position in relation to strongest and weakest performers

2. A focus on inclusiveness and equity in education

About half of the disadvantaged pupils in Greece are low achievers, a sign that the quality and equity of education need to be addressed. Low participation in early childhood education and care, especially of disadvantaged children under 4, results in educational inequalities. These inequalities affect the children’s future education prospects and development (diaNΕΟsis 2021). One in five students underperformed in all three subjects tested as part of the PISA 2018 survey – severe underachievement. As in other EU countries, educational outcomes are heavily influenced by socio-economic background. Almost half of the students in Greece from the lowest socio-economic quartile lack basic reading skills compared to only one in seven students from the highest quartile. Equally worrying, about half of students from a migrant background obtain low results compared to one in three students born in Greece. Migrant children’s access to post-secondary and tertiary education also gives cause for concern. Only one in five people aged 25-34 and born outside the EU holds a tertiary education qualification (vs the EU average of 34.7%). The proportion of early school leavers is particularly low in Greece, but the risk of early school leaving was 7.8 times higher among young people born outside the EU (30%) than among those born in the EU. The pandemic’s impact on the economy has also had a severe knock-on effect on the prospects of young adults, in particular the prospects of those who leave school early. 

Educational outcomes of Roma pupils lag far behind those of their peers. Greece has a significant Roma population¹. The most recent Fundamental Rights Agency survey shows some improvement, but Roma pupils still face major challenges in education. Only 16% of them complete upper secondary education, compared to 95.7% of the total population. Around one third of Roma children attend schools where all or almost all of their schoolmates are Roma (down from 48% in 2016)². National efforts are underway for in particular pupils from vulnerable social groups, to be integrated into the educational system. Between 2020 and 2022, Greece participated in an Erasmus+ project called ‘Inclusive schools for Roma’. Encompassing capacity-building activities and education mediation, the project involved 200 teachers, 50 Roma education mediators and 20 schools.

Greece has the potential to create a strong and inclusive education system. It has qualified and very committed teachers, 15-year-old students with a strong sense of belonging to school (OECD, 2019) and one of the lowest early school leaving rates in the EU. All students follow a similar curriculum until the age of 16, and there is second-chance education for those who leave education and training early. Education is free, including the distribution of textbooks. Greece is one of the EU countries³ that give financial support to teachers in disadvantaged schools. However, monitoring and further improving the quality in education hinges on the full implementation of the schools’ external evaluation and the evaluation of teachers that is currently underway. This could be especially beneficial for disadvantaged pupils. The country has average equity in education outcomes, as assessed in PISA 2015. Despite Greece’s geography, only 3.5% of primary schools and 6% of secondary schools are classified as ‘difficult to access’ by the Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs (Ministry of Education) (Roussakis, 2017). 

There is a strong political will to strengthen inclusiveness and equity in education. Greece’s national authorities are making efforts to tackle the complex issue of inclusive education and equity in education at legislative, policy and implementation levels. The EU Technical Support Instrument of the European Commission (Education and Training Monitor 2021) is supporting Greece to implement a comprehensive educational reform, putting inclusion at the heart of educational policy. The reform aims to meet the diverse needs of learners, including pupils with disabilities and special educational needs, refugees and students from low socio-economic backgrounds. A framework for inclusive education has been designed and inclusiveness and equity in education are covered in the different national policy papers. Numerous programmes are being implemented at all levels of education and vocational training by the Institute of Educational Policy (IEP), such as the Erasmus+ ‘Inclusive schools for Roma’, the UNICEF programmes ‘Pathway to all children in education’, and programmes for multilingual environments. The extension of pre-primary education by 2 years in all Greek municipalities in 2021/2022 was a positive step, as the foundations for equal opportunities are laid at the start of education. The establishment of 50 new model and experimental schools in the 2021/2022 school year has also paved the way towards accessible education for all.

Greece invests in inclusive education and equity through EU funding. The digital divide complicated matters during the pandemic. As in other EU countries⁴, in 2020 more than 20% of students in Greece from the bottom socio-economic quartile did not have a computer they could use for schoolwork (OECD, 2020a) (NESET, 2021). The EU Recovery and Resilience Facility (RRF) aims to address this gap and has already provided digital equipment to more than 500 000 pupils and students, subject to income criteria⁵ (European Commission, 2021). The scheme has recently been extended to teachers. The support provided includes the development of digital content accessible to all, equipment for all schools, support for the professional development of teachers, and digital services (European Commission, 2021). Greece allocates EUR 1 223 million to education and lifelong learning through the European Social Fund+ (ESF+). This amount is also allocated to supporting people with disabilities and special educational needs and people from vulnerable social groups. Some EUR 360 million from the European Regional Development Fund will improve access to inclusive education through infrastructure and equipment. Horizon 2020 also helps to tackle inequality and exclusion in schools (Cordis 2020).

Figure 3: Low-achieving students in reading by socio-economic and migrant background in Greece, PISA 2018 (%)

3. Early childhood education and care

Greece ranks last in the EU in participation in early childhood education and care (age 3+), but performs better for the 4+ age bracket. In 2020, only 71.3% of children aged 3 to the starting age of the compulsory primary education participated in early childhood education, well below the EU average of 93% and the EU-level target of 96% by 2030. This is largely because most children start attending school at age 4. In 2020, only one child in three participated in early childhood education at age 3, compared to the EU average of 87.8%. Significantly more children are in pre-school from age 4+, the start of compulsory pre-primary education (86.5%). In 2020, Greece saw one of the most marked improvements⁶ in the EU, with an increase of 2.5 percentage points (pps) compared to 2019 (ages 3+ and 4+). This was mainly the outcome of the gradual lowering of the starting age for compulsory education to age 4 was completed during the 2021/2022 school year. Nevertheless, capacity constraints and teacher shortages persist. The Ministry of Education has attempted to anticipate these and ensure the effective functioning of schools in the 2022/2023 school year by appointing 25 000 teachers for all levels of compulsory education early on, including permanent appointments for special education teachers. 

The establishment of a national council for pre-school education is a step towards an integrated approach to pre-school education and care. The national council⁷ was created in 2022 in line with the national framework for pre-school education of children 0-4 years old. It will monitor the quality of nurseries and kindergartens, the modernisation and optimal implementation of national programmes and their monitoring, and the training of specialised staff – to date 125 000 hours of teachers training provided -, as well as their assessment and appointment. A holistic strategy for ECEC from 0-6 years old, until young children enter primary education, is needed to ensure the quality of the education provided. Affordability for all should also be ensured.

4. School education

Greece has one of the lowest⁸ rates of early leavers from education and training in the EU. At 3.2% in 2021, the proportion of early school leavers is already far below the 2030 EU-level target of 9%. The rate in rural areas is only slightly higher than in urban areas, at 4.1% in 2021. Greece manages to maintain this low level, an indication that it handles the problem effectively. Policies facilitate transitions within education and training systems or provide alternative education and training pathways. They also help early school leavers re-enter the education system through second-chance education and career guidance. Proof of the effectiveness of Greece’s policies is also that in 2021, 95.7% of 20 to 24 year-olds obtained at least upper secondary diplomas, making Greece the top performer in this area⁹. 

Education for environmental sustainability (EES) is part and parcel of Greek legislation and new school curricula. During consecutive reforms, the national educational policy on EES has been harmonised with the UNESCO-led Global Education 2030 Agenda. Soft skills and life-science competencies in areas covered by Greek legislation¹⁰ – climate change, environmental awareness, sustainable development – have been incorporated into the new curricula. Those notions constitute an integral part of the innovative action in schools, the ‘Skills Labs’ (ETM 2021). The strategic plan for teacher training in ESD is part of teachers’ mandatory initial training¹¹.

Pupils in the last years of primary and lower secondary education participated in the first national formative assessment tests last May. Greece organised¹² a programme of system-level evaluation of 12 000 pupils in Greek and mathematics. A representative sample of students and schools¹³ did the tests. The Ministry’s aim was to assess the implementation of the new curricula and the learning outcomes of pupils at national, regional and school levels. This was mainly for policy design purposes and was done in order to increase quality and mitigate disparities in education. Although referred to as ‘Greek PISA’ by the press, there is a significant difference compared to the international PISA tests, as the tests done in Greece provided an assessment of basic knowledge rather than a competence check. However, the test fills the gap in the systematic collection and analysis of data on the quality of education.

Steady steps to introduce teacher evaluation. Greece has only recently introduced the evaluation of schools and teachers, while across Europe the evaluation of schools has become increasingly important for monitoring the overall quality of education. Internal evaluation is in place since the 2020/2021 school year. A prerequisite for implementing teacher evaluation is the selection of education executives¹⁴. This includes the school principals for primary and secondary education, directors at regional and municipal level and education consultants. The Ministry is in the process of appointing 800 consultants out of 2 800 applicants. While the process has been hampered by delays, procedures seem to be back on track and teacher evaluation, at the top of the national political and policy agenda, is supposed to commence during the current school year.

Greece has brought itself into line with other Member States by introducing the ‘item bank’ system for the school-based assessment of pupils. Item banks (banks of examination questions) in education can be regarded as useful assets for increasing the quality of education. Half of the questions in the in-school examinations last school year, at the three levels of upper secondary education¹⁵, were from the item bank and were of graduated difficulty. The other half were set by the class teacher. The aim is to harmonise in-school exams throughout the country and to make the exams system more objective. 

Students in Greece receive limited training on how to detect biased information (OECD, 2021). One in two 15-year-old students in OECD countries reported being trained at school on how to recognise whether information is biased or not, with Greece coming in at 52% (Suarez-Alvarez, 2021). The capacity of 15-year-olds to distinguish facts from opinions also varies among OECD countries, with an average of 47% and Greece at 40.5%. The socio-economic background of students in Greece also comes into play here (Suarez-Alvarez, 2021). The pandemic made matters worse by increasing the use of digital means of obtaining information. The fallout of this is that it has become crucial to develop young people’s digital literacy and critical thinking skills (OECD, 2021). By contrast, the proportion of 16 to 19-year-olds with basic or above-basic overall digital skills is high in Greece, at 89%, vs the EU average of 69% (DESI, 2022). The impact of the ‘Skills Labs’ introduced in 2020 in the Greek schools is to be assessed, as the intention is among others to enforce digital literacy and to develop skills including critical thinking.

The results of the Panhellenic university entrance exams for the 2020/2021 and 2021/2022 academic years show that a considerable learning loss occurred due to the pandemic. Contrary to the year before school closures, the university entrance exam results in summer 2020 showed a difference of 0.22 standard deviations (s.d.) and those of summer 2021 a difference of 0.405 s.d. These results seem to affect the most vulnerable parts of the population, such as poor people and immigrants (Lambropoulos et al., 2022).

5. Vocational education and training and adult learning

Greece is undertaking reforms to improve the attractiveness and social perceptions of VET which have long been hampered. This will occur through better coordination and relevance with the labour market. The recently updated VET and adult learning legal framework¹⁷ has established a new system of governance and sustainable partnerships with coordinating bodies at national, regional and sectoral levels. The new governance bodies, such as the Central Council for Vocational Education and Training (KSEEK) and the Central Scientific Committee (KEE), along with the Sectoral Skills Councils and the Production and Labour Market Association Councils (SSPAE) in the 13 regions of the country have been launched. Also, VET investments driven by the Strategic Plan for Vocational Education, Training, Lifelong Learning and Youth and the recently adopted Strategy for Lifelong Skills Development¹⁸ have also set a quality upgrade of VET as a priority. The aim is to increase productivity and growth, tackle total and youth unemployment and improve the entire population’s skills. Career progression opportunities in technical specialties – the keystone of VET – are also still hampered by a limited internal job market. The planned modernisation of the VET offer and its delivery, a key aspect of what needs to be done to improve matters, needs to be accelerated by updating job profiles. The aim is to help workers and companies better adapt to the new entrepreneurial environment and to help further develop quality-assured VET systems. The planned streamlining of different educational pathways can also address problems created by the existence of identical specialties in different learning paths. 

In initial VET, curricula and educational materials are being upgraded. In 2020, 31.9% of upper secondary pupils were enrolled in VET programmes¹⁹, compared to the EU average of 48.7%. School to work transitions are facilitated by the apprenticeship class in VET schools. Funding for apprenticeships will continue to be provided through the ESF+. Combining an apprenticeship with on-the-job training for at least 50% of the duration of VET programmes and laboratory specialty courses is expected to create more opportunities for VET graduates to gain experience and improve their qualifications in real working conditions. In 2021, the exposure of recent VET graduates to work-based learning²⁰ was 16.7% (below the EU average of 60.7%). The establishment and expansion of model and experimental upper secondary vocational schools, with the collaboration of social partners and the local community, helps make VET more attractive by better linking it to labour market needs. Greater integration of green skills into the curriculum, and the provision of psychosocial support, are also expected to greatly improve the VET schools model. The creation of international partnerships and the ALMA (Aim, Learn, Master, Achieve)²¹ initiative are particularly helpful in this regard. Generally speaking, structural reforms need to be accompanied by a mapping of gaps.

Establishing a lifelong learning culture is critical for ensuring greater participation in adult learning. Greece has set a target of 40% of adults in training every year by 2030. This is more than double the 2016 rate of 16%. The focus on the digital and green transitions is expected to be reinforced to further modernise VET and support the significant digital and green investments planned for the years ahead. The focus on digital skills and the mastering of technological applications for the economy has been strengthened with the recent Law 4921/2022. This law also envisages the establishment of individual learning accounts to increase adult participation in learning. Long-standing systemic deficiencies in the quality control of lifelong learning centres, which came to light during the pandemic, have been addressed with Law 4763/2020, introducing a new quality control standard and the certification of qualifications. To ensure the adequacy and quality of all adult learning, the expertise of adult educators is expected to be upgraded through digital training sessions and the training of trainers, evaluators, teachers and executives responsible for designing, organising and implementing programmes and managing lifelong learning centres. The recent reform of the VET system and the substantive infrastructure investments under the Recovery and Resilience Facility are expected to increase participation to VET schools such as in vocational training institutes’ programmes and apprenticeship schemes for 18 to 24-year-olds. Paid internship schemes have also been developed. Lastly, the tracking of graduates needs to be systematically implemented to detect mismatches between qualifications and labour market needs.

6. Higher education

Tertiary education attainment is high, but a significant gender gap persists, with 44.2% of young people aged 25-34 in Greece holding a tertiary education degree. This is higher than the EU average of 41.2% and close to the EU-level target of 45% by 2030. However, a significant gender gap in favour of women persists (-13.4 pps vs the EU average of -11.1 pps), with 59% of all graduates being women. Greece is one of the Member States with a high proportion of female science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) graduates. In 2020, one in five female graduates was a STEM graduate (vs the EU average of 14.1%). At 38.4%, the proportion of female over all STEM graduates in Greece is also above the EU average of 33.2%. In 2020, women represented 34.3% of ICT graduates (EU: 20.8%) (OECD, 2020).

Greece aims to strengthen links between universities, research bodies and industry with the support of the RRF. In an effort to better connect education with research, and based on the conclusions of the HEInnovate review on the Greek higher education (OECD - EC 2021), industrial doctoral schemes have been introduced by law into the Greek higher education system²². This is part of a major reform for Greece financed under the RRF called ‘Strategy for excellence in universities and innovation’. Doctoral dissertations in basic or applied research will be conducted under a tripartite agreement between, for example, one university, one doctoral student and one industry or company based or operating in Greece. The research results should relate to the production of innovative products or services. 

Greece is the only Member State that has not yet ratified the Lisbon Recognition Convention²³ . Although this decision is within the limits of national competencies, the Convention remains the key legal instrument for the recognition of academic qualifications in the countries that have signed it. The Convention is also an important instrument for the Bologna Process that establishes the European Higher Education Area. The body for the academic recognition of titles and qualifications in Greece is the Hellenic National Recognition and Information Centre. On the basis of Law 4957/2022 adopted last July for higher education, the Ministry of Education has significantly simplified the recognition procedure, by making the condition for recognition inclusion in two registries created by the recognition body, one for recognised universities abroad and one for recognised qualifications. Greece also participated in the pilot programme ‘European Qualifications Passport for Refugees’, based on the Lisbon Convention. 

Figure 4: Female STEM tertiary graduates as a proportion of total STEM tertiary graduates, 2020 (%)

A new law was adopted in July improving and modernising higher education²⁴. The law is structured around four pillars: 1) upgrading the quality of higher education institutions, 2) improving how they function, 3) forging closer links between them and society, and 4) modernising the Hellenic National Recognition and Information Centre. The law is aligned with the objectives of the European Education Area. It is also in line with Greece’s commitment in its national recovery and resilience plan (RRP) to reform higher education. University Councils will be created as administrative bodies, sharing strategic and control responsibilities with the executive body, awarding autonomy to the HEIs. A new framework for the appointment of faculty members is being introduced to make it more meritocratic and transparent. The recruitment of visiting professors and researchers from abroad, a project in the Greek RRP, aims to make higher education institutions more international. Micro-credentials will help improve people’s skills levels and the new law will enhance brain gain and attract new funding sources.

Performance criteria apply for 20% of universities’ funding. For the first time during the current fiscal year and in accordance with Law 4653/2020, objective criteria have been linked to 80% of funding for higher education institutions and performance criteria to the remaining 20% (European Commission, 2020). For performance (20%), a set of criteria is applied to all higher education institutions for the improvement of basic academic activities, and the institutions choose another two criteria from the following: a) excellence in education, research and innovation, b) links with society and the labour market, and the use of the knowledge produced, c) internationalisation, or d) an institution’s environmental sustainability. This performance-based approach adds transparency to the funding process of the higher education institutions, highlighting their comparative advantages. Higher education has been underfunded for years in Greece. This year, public funding will be increased by EUR 14.5 million, to EUR 105 million.

Annex I: Key indicators sources

Annex II: Structure of the education system