European Commission

Education and Training Monitor 2022

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Comparative report

Chapter 5. An expansion of higher education masks persisting disparities

EU-level 2030 target: ‘The share of 25-34 year-olds with tertiary educational attainment should be at least 45%, by 2030.’

5.1. Progress in tertiary educational attainment is led by young women

Higher levels of educational attainment are associated with higher employment rates, lower unemployment, better job prospects and higher earnings. Highly educated young people (84.9%) were more likely to be employed in 2021 compared to those with a medium level of education (77.5%) and those with a low level of education (54.8%)120. The higher education sector has an essential role to play in Europe’s post-pandemic recovery and in shaping sustainable and resilient societies, of which deeper and more effective transnational cooperation is a key element121.

The tertiary educational attainment rate of 25-34 year-olds in the EU stood at 41.2% in 2021. This continues the steady growth seen in the past decade, up from 34.1% in 2012 and 37.6% in 2017 (Figure 16). In all but three Member States, attainment rates have increased compared to 2017122. At EU level, the current rate is 3.8 percentage points shy of the 45% target for 2030, with 13 Member States surpassing it in 2021. Top performers are Luxembourg (62.6%), Ireland (61.7%), Cyprus (58.3%), Lithuania (57.5%) and the Netherlands (55.6%). Eight Member States have yet to reach 40%123.

Figure 16. 10 years of educational expansion has brought about higher shares of tertiary level attainment
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Three dimensions of inequality in educational attainment are worth emphasising here: the gender gap, the socio-economic gap and the effect of first-generation migration and EU mobility. Firstly, there is a sizeable and persistent gender gap in tertiary educational attainment across the EU, which has been expanding over the previous decades (Figure 17) and is now substantial across all Member States126. Educational attainment at this level is much more common among women than men in the 25-34 age group. At 46.8%, the female EU average has exceeded the target127. In contrast, the attainment rate for men was 35.7% in 2021, 11.1 percentage points lower than the rate for women128.

Figure 17. The gender gap increased from 4.3 percentage points in 2002 to 11.1 percentage points in 2021
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Reducing the gender gap will be necessary if the EU level target is to be reached by 2030. This will require institutional changes at tertiary level to ensure equal opportunities and gender equality129, but there is also a need for measures at lower education levels. Evidence suggests that gender gaps are already prevalent in secondary education (Chapter 3) and continue to widen along the education trajectory130. At the time of entry into first-cycle programmes, a gender gap is already well-established131 and increases through to completion of tertiary education132. Moreover, there are large gender differences across fields of study, which will be examined closer in Section 5.2.

Box 14. A higher education sector observatory

In 2023, the Commission will set up a European Higher Education Sector Observatory to provide evidence on progress made in implementing the European strategy for universities. The observatory will combine the best of the current EU data tools and capacities (including ETER, U-Multirank, Eurostudent and Eurograduate) in one single place, while further improving their use and relevance for policymakers, universities, students and researchers.

Streamlining and upgrading existing European data sources will enable institutions and governments to strengthen their evidence base on key topics such as inclusion, learning outcomes, progress on digital, green and entrepreneurial skills, technology transfer, employability, students and labour market needs, strengthening research careers, open science, the institutions’ role in innovation ecosystems, and transnational cooperation in the higher education sector.

The Observatory will make it possible to compare, analyse and showcase the higher education sector’s performance across various fields - thereby supporting the transformation of higher education institutions. By building on the synergies between the existing data tools, it will ensure focused and purpose-driven monitoring, eliminating potential overlaps and decreasing data collection burden on higher education institutions.

Young people whose parents have a low level of education are more than three times less likely to attain a tertiary-level qualification.

Secondly, ad hoc data from 2021 confirm that tertiary educational attainment is often passed down from previous generations (Figure 18). The EU average tertiary educational attainment rates are 48.6 percentage points higher among young people whose parents have a high level of education (70.8%) than they are among young people whose parents have a low level of education (22.2%). Far from decoupling educational performance and socio-economic status (Chapter 1), parental education proves a robust determinant of tertiary educational attainment across the EU.

Figure 18. New evidence sheds light on parental education and parental country of birth
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Thirdly, new evidence confirms that the children of migrant parents or parents from other EU countries do not yield lower tertiary educational attainment rates on average across the EU (Figure 18)133. A young person born in the reporting country has similar chances of obtaining a higher education qualification if their parent(s) were born in another EU country (42.6%), outside the EU (42.4%) or in the reporting country (42.2)134. Only first-generation migration (34.1%) and EU mobility (38.5%) are associated with lower likelihoods of tertiary educational attainment. The gender gap is smaller among the latter two groups, amounting to 5.7 and 5.8 percentage points, respectively.

5.2. Gender stereotypes persist in study choice

Challenging gender prejudices and stereotypes throughout the education cycle, from early childhood education to adult learning, can reduce gender imbalances in other areas of life135. Gender gaps in education choices are significant and, like the attainment gap, they persist over time. Figure 19 shows the distribution of women and men enrolled in higher education in the EU in 2020 across broad fields of study.

Men are underrepresented in the fields of education (21.5%); health and welfare (28.1%); arts and humanities (35.5%); and social sciences, journalism and information (35.6%). This contrasts female enrolment in the STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) disciplines, where women only represent 31.3% of the enrolled students despite good employment opportunities in this area136. Sweden (37.2%), Romania (36.8%), Italy (36.2%) and Poland (35.6%) are the only Member States where the female enrolment shares in STEM disciplines exceed 35%137.

Figure 19. There are strong gender disparities across fields of study
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Existing research provides evidence of a complex set of determinants as regards the gender gap in STEM, highlighting aspects such as the educational context, the structure of the labour market and cultural values and social norms in society138. An example is the persistent labelling of study areas as either ‘feminine’ or ‘masculine’, which may result in study choices being limited to what is ‘suitable’ for either women or men. Reducing these barriers is important in order to allow young women and men to choose their study pathways more freely, without gender stereotypes constraining their possibilities (Box 15).

Box 15. Tackling gender stereotypes in study choice

In March 2022, Ireland published recommendations on gender balance in STEM education, expanding further on actions identified in its 2017-19 STEM Education Implementation Plan. These recommendations cover four key areas for action: (1) instilling a whole school culture change, to include early years leaders and educators, school leaders, teachers, learners and parents/guardians; (2) providing effective support for early years educators and teachers; (3) widening learner access to STEM; and (4) supporting a societal and cultural shift to address current barriers to gender balance in STEM.

The Estonian Social Affairs Ministry commissioned a study on women's representation in ICT education and the labour market. The study resulted in the following policy recommendations: (1) technology lessons and activities should be directed to boys and girls equally; (2) ICT should be a compulsory part of the national curriculum, either as a separate subject or integrated with other lessons; and (3) gender mainstreaming among teachers should be promoted and developed systematically. The recommendations were reflected in the updated 2022 curriculum for technology education, which stipulates that the division of students into study groups be gender-neutral and based on students' interests and preferences.

In Czechia, a 2004-18 project called Break the Waves (Prolomit vlny) aimed to increase equal opportunities for women and men in the labour market and education, by tackling occupational segregation. The project was conducted by a non-profit organisation. One of the work strands aimed to support non-gender-stereotyped career choices for girls and boys at the end of primary and secondary schools, by helping career counsellors and education providers change gender stereotypes in educational choices. The project produced, among other things, a handbook on gender-sensitive school management, a gender auditing methodology and a gender equality tool for teachers.

Closing the gender gap in STEM is likely to foster economic growth via both higher productivity and increased labour market activity. One example is Europe’s digital transition (Chapter 8), which sees an increased need for skilled labour in the ICT sector. This is addressed through a proposed EU-level target under the Digital Decade of reaching 20 million employed ICT specialists by 2030. In 2021, there were 8.9 million employed ICT specialists in the EU, but only 19.1% of them were female. This is consistent across Member States, with none having female shares exceeding 30%139. To achieve the Digital Decade objectives, education will play a central role, with the 2021-27 Digital Education Action Plan being one of the key enablers.

5.3. Learning mobility remains limited and highly unbalanced

The opportunity for learners to move abroad to study, as well as the broader cooperation across borders, are strong drivers for improving the quality of education and training institutions140. Mobility is an essential part of lifelong learning and an important means to improve personal development, employability, and adaptability. Moreover, learning mobility can increase cooperation between education institutions and step up transnational cooperation141.

There were close to 4.1 million graduates from tertiary education in 2020 originating in the EU142. Of these, approximately 550 000 completed parts of or all their studies abroad. This equates to a graduate mobility rate of 13.5%, which is on par with developments in recent years143. Limited progress may hint at barriers to mobility that would need to be removed if the EU is to move towards achieving a European Education Area by 2025144. An additional obstacle, yet to be fully reflected in the data on mobile graduates, is the COVID-19 pandemic145. As was documented for the VET sector in Chapter 4, the pandemic significantly affected the globalisation of higher education (see Box 16).

Figure 20. A temporary stay abroad remains the favoured option for most mobile graduates
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A temporary stay abroad was the favoured option for most mobile graduates, as indicated in Figure 20. At 9.1%, the credit mobility rate was more than double that of the degree mobility rate (4.3%) at EU level. Luxembourg (85.4%) had by far the highest outbound mobility rate in 2020, almost 50 percentage points above the second highest rate found in Cyprus (35.5%). Together with the Netherlands (24.3%) and Slovakia (20.8%), they are the only countries exceeding 20%146. In 2020, the rate for most Member States was between 10% and 20%. However, six countries have yet to reach 10%147.

Box 16. Learning mobility during COVID-19

COVID-19 resulted in large disruptions to the higher education sector and caused a major break in international student mobility. Campus closures and travel restrictions led to a move to online education both for domestic and international students.

The expected short-term impact of the pandemic on student mobility is a decrease in international enrolments. A recent study on university applications from foreign students in the United Kingdom found that the pandemic led to a reduction in applications of between 11% and 14% in 2020, which does not appear to have been driven by Brexit. These findings are in line with drops in international enrolments seen in many other countries in the academic year 2020-21148.

It is too early to predict the long-term impact of the pandemic on international student mobility. While short-term drops in enrolments are expected, it is still unknown whether the pandemic will alter the perception of studying abroad in the medium- and long-term. A rapid transformation of the way learning was organised during COVID-19 has shown that physical mobility is not the only option for internationalisation. Virtual mobility could reach more students but may reduce the number of students going abroad.

The EU’s inward graduate degree mobility rate was higher than the outward degree mobility rate in 2020 (8.0% compared to 4.3%)149. More than two in three (70.4%) inward degree mobile graduates originated outside the EU150. Stimulating mobility, as well as attracting and retaining talented students (alongside academics and researchers), can help maximise Europe’s global influence as regards values, education, research and societal impact151.

Figure 21 provides information on degree mobility balance in 2020, including mobility both within and outside the EU152. It is important to strive for a balance in the mobility flows to optimise what is often referred to as ‘brain circulation’. Figure 21 illustrates how balanced a system is in comparison to its outward degree mobility rate. Positive values on the x-axis indicate an imbalance in favour of inward mobility, whereas negative values indicate an imbalance in favour of outbound mobility. The most balanced country in 2020 was Romania, while the most imbalanced countries were the Netherlands and Denmark.

Figure 21. Most Member States receive more students than they send abroad
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Most Member States receive more students than the number of those going abroad, indicated by the cluster on the right-hand side of the x-axis. Countries with a high importing balance tend to have lower outbound mobility rates, albeit with substantial variation between countries. In 2020, Denmark and the Netherlands were the highest net importing countries, with mobility imbalances of more than 80%. Moreover, the outbound mobility rates in these countries (2.1% and 2.2%, respectively) were among the lowest in the EU.

The variation in outward mobility rates of net exporting countries is substantially higher than observed among net importing countries. Luxembourg, Slovakia, Greece, and Cyprus were the highest net exporting countries (above 40%), and saw outward mobility rates of 76.9%, 19.9%, 4.9% and 40.2%, respectively.

Figure 22. Intra-EU degree mobility is highly unbalanced across Member States
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Considering only intra-EU degree mobility, the depiction of balance takes on a very different form (Figure 22). In 2020, Italy, Luxembourg, Slovakia, Lithuania, Cyprus and Croatia had the highest net export of degree mobile students to other Member States relative to how many students they received. A further 10 Member States also recorded a mobility flow imbalance in favour of outbound mobility. Notably, many countries move from being net import countries to net export countries if only intra-EU mobility is considered153.

In a nutshell

In 2021, 41.2% of 25-34 year-olds had a tertiary-level qualification, keeping the EU on track towards meeting its 2030 target of at least 45%. However, decades of educational expansion have coincided with an ever-widening gender gap, reaching 11.1 percentage points in favour of women. Evidence suggests that gender gaps emerge long before tertiary education and widen along the education trajectory, as mirrored in most data on new entrants, enrolments and completion. Study choice also retains a strong gender divide, and women remain underrepresented in disciplines such as ICT and engineering. In addition, tertiary educational attainment rates are 48.6 percentage points higher among young people whose parents have a high level of education than they are among young people whose parents have a low level of education.

Notes

  • 120. This concerns the 25-34 age cohort. Despite having a higher rate of tertiary educational attainment, highly educated women (82.9%) were less likely to be in employment than men (87.9%). If considering the unemployment rate, which only covers people in the labour force, the difference between highly educated women and men is minor (0.2% in favour of men in 2021). Monitor Toolbox

  • 121. To this end, the European Commission adopted a European strategy for universities in early 2022, which was endorsed by 2022 Council conclusions. Encouraging deeper transnational cooperation, a 2022 Council Recommendation aims to build bridges for effective European higher education cooperation.

  • 122. Poland (-3.0 percentage points), Romania (-2.3 percentage points), and Finland (-0.2 percentage points) are the exceptions.

  • 123. Looking closer at this group of young people with tertiary educational attainment, a master’s level or equivalent is most common (44.4%), closely followed by bachelor’s level or equivalent (43.5%). Also, a notable share of these young people having obtained their highest attainment level through short-cycle tertiary education (10.6%). Attainment at doctoral level or equivalent is not as prevalent for this age cohort (1.5%). In comparison, 3.0% of 25-64 year-olds with tertiary level attainment have qualifications at the doctoral level. The shares of people with short-cycle tertiary education (14.1%) and master level or equivalent qualifications (45.6%) are slightly higher in this age cohort, while the share of people with bachelor level or equivalent qualifications (37.3%) is lower. The overall tertiary educational attainment rate (33.4%) is significantly lower compared to the younger age cohort. Monitor Toolbox

  • 124. The 2014 break in time series was due to the new International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED), with actual changes for only very few Member States. Further information on the changes can be found here.

  • 125. As from 2021, new legislation applies to the EU Labour Force Survey (LFS). Therefore, Eurostat flags all 2021 LFS data with ‘b’ (break in series). The methodological changes have a particular impact on labour force status but can also impact other LFS indicators. Further information on the changes can be found here.

  • 126. In 20 Member States, the tertiary educational attainment rate for females in the 25-34 age group exceeds 45%. Conversely, the male cohort has only reached this level of attainment in six Member States. In addition, there are only seven Member States where the gap is less than 10 percentage points. Germany stands out with the narrowest gap (3.8). Differences of more than 20 percentage points are found in Slovenia (23.6), Slovakia (23.0) and Estonia (21.2).

  • 127. The target value was already reached by female 25-34 year-olds already in 2019 when the rate reached 45.0%.

  • 128. The distribution across different tertiary education levels differs between women and men in the 25-34 age cohort. Most women with tertiary level attainment completed a degree at master's or equivalent level (45.7%), followed by bachelor's or equivalent level (43.6), short-cycle tertiary education (9.5%), and doctoral or equivalent level (1.3%). Attainment at bachelor's or equivalent level (43.5%) was more common among men with tertiary educational attainment, followed by master's or equivalent level (45.7%), short-cycle tertiary education (12.1%), and doctoral or equivalent level (1.7%). Monitor Toolbox

  • 129. The Commission, in cooperation with stakeholders and Member States, plans to develop a European framework for diversity and inclusion, including for gender gaps, to this end (see the 2022 Commission Communication on a European Strategy for Universities).

  • 130. A 2021 study on gender behaviour and its impact on education outcomes points to a direct link between boys’ underperformance in compulsory school education and the gender gap in tertiary educational attainment, as participation in higher education is highly dependent on grades and obtaining an upper secondary education qualification. For an overview of other determinants underlying the gender gap identified in the literature, see a 2021 analytical report from the European Expert Network on Economics of Education (EENEE).

  • 131. In 2020, 54.0% of new entrants to bachelor’s or equivalent level were female, up from 53.5% in 2016. Monitor Toolbox Women outnumbered men both in terms of enrolled students and graduates. Monitor Toolbox

  • 132. Data collected for OECD’s Education at a Glance 2019 showed that, on average, women have a higher completion rates than men in bachelor’s programmes.

  • 133.Note that these averages mask substantial variation between Member States.

  • 134.At 42.2%, the average for 25-34 year-olds born in the reporting country as were their parent(s) is still below the 2030 target of at least 45%. This is different from early school leaving, where the equivalent group has reached the respective 2030 target of below 9%.

  • 135.Challenging gender stereotypes, closing gender gaps in the labour market and achieving equal participation across different sectors of the economy are central components of the Commission’s 2020-25 Gender Equality Strategy.

  • 136.The STEM disciplines encompass the following broad fields of study: ‘natural sciences, mathematics and statistics’, ‘information and communication technologies’ and ‘engineering, manufacturing and construction’.

  • 137.Considering the constituent STEM disciplines, substantial gender gaps are found in both ICT and engineering, manufacturing and construction, with women accounting for, on average, less than one third of enrolled students (19.3% and 26.8%, respectively). At country level, the pattern is consistent, with a female share of under 35% across all Member States in both fields. Natural sciences, mathematics and statistics differ from the other STEM disciplines insofar as there is almost gender balance at EU level (50.4% in favour of women), but with stronger variation at country level. See also the gender gaps in awareness of environmental problems in Section 8.3.

  • 138.See a 2021 analytical report from the European Expert Network on Economics of Education (EENEE).

  • 139. Monitor Toolbox

  • 140.Internationalisation is not only a strong driver for improving the quality of education and training systems. It can also have an impact on the economy. A 2020 analytical report from the European Expert Network on Economics of Education (EENEE) examines this in more detail.

  • 141.See the 2022 Council Recommendation on building bridges for effective European higher education cooperation.

  • 142.The figure for graduates originating in the EU is computed by taking the number of graduates in the EU, subtracting graduates originating outside the EU who graduated in the EU, and adding graduates originating in the EU who graduated in a country outside the EU.

  • 143.Variations in reported data makes comparisons over time difficult. Excluding countries where not all data are reported would severely restrict the analysis, as inward degree mobility is the basis for computing outward mobility.

  • 144.Mutual recognition of higher education qualifications and the outcomes of learning periods abroad are two examples, which were addressed in a 2018 Council Recommendation. The latest edition of the Mobility Scoreboard supports this notion, and provides information on additional challenges. An in-depth overview is presented in Eurydice’s 2020 Bologna Process Implementation Report.

  • 145.The most recent data, from 2020, refer to the academic year 2019-20, which is too early to assess the full impact of COVID-19.

  • 146.In 2009, an EU-level target was adopted, which aimed for at least 20% of higher education graduates to have a study period abroad by 2020.

  • 147.Ireland did not report credit mobility data for 2020, which could result in the outward rate being underestimated.

  • 148.For more details, see a 2021 report on the impact of COVID-19 on higher education by the Network of Experts working on the Social dimension of Education and Training (NESET).

  • 149.The inward mobility rate for the EU is calculated as the number of inward degree-mobile graduates in the EU divided by the number of graduates originating in the EU.

  • 150.The highest share of degree mobile graduates came from Asia (23.3%), followed by Africa (17.1%), European countries outside the EU (12.9%), and the Caribbean, Central and South America (8.5%). The remaining two regions, Northern America (2.4%), and Oceania (0.2%), made up less than 3% of the inward degree mobile graduates. Graduates from unspecified regions of origin comprised 5.9%.

  • 151.The European Strategy for Universities highlights the importance of fostering mobility between Europe and other regions of the world.

  • 152.The data depicted in this chart is based on student mobility rather than graduate mobility. This increases coverage of outbound mobility to destinations outside of Europe, which in turn provides a more nuanced overview of mobility balance. Balance is computed as the absolute difference (incoming minus outgoing students) divided by the total number of incoming students (when the balance is positive) or by the total number of outgoing students (when the balance is negative).

  • 153.Outward degree mobility to the EU accounts for more than 50% of the outbound mobility in all but seven Member States (France, Lithuania, Portugal, Sweden, Denmark, Ireland, and Malta). Conversely, inward mobile students from the EU account for less than 50% of inbound mobility in most Member States. In seven countries, the share is below 20% (Lithuania, Finland, Italy, Ireland, Portugal, France, and Poland). This is an important caveat when assessing intra-EU mobility. Systems may be much more attractive to foreign students than the intra-EU balance (Figure 22) would suggest. The share of inward mobility from outside the EU is above 80% in Poland, France, Portugal, Ireland, Italy, Finland, and Lithuania.