General labour market conditions in the EU and its Member States
References
- Abel, J.R., R. Deitz, S. Heise, B. Hyman and N. Montalbano (2025), Are Businesses Absorbing the Tariffs or Passing Them On to Their Customers?, Federal Reserve Bank of New York, Liberty Street Economics, June 4, 2025.
- Acemoglu, D. and V. Guerrieri (2008), Capital Deepening and Non-balanced Economic Growth, Journal of Political Economy, 116(3), 467–498, https://doi.org/10.1086/589523.
- Aghion, P., B. F. Jones and C. I. Jones (2019), 9. Artificial Intelligence and Economic Growth, The Economics of Artificial Intelligence (pp. 237–290). University of Chicago Press, https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.7208/9780226613475-011/html.
- Alvarez-Cuadrado, F., N. V. Long and M. Poschke (2018), Capital-labor substitution, structural change and the labor income share, Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, 87, 206–231, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jedc.2017.12.010.
- Autor, D. H. (2015), Why Are There Still So Many Jobs? The History and Future of Workplace Automation, Journal of Economic Perspectives, vol. 29, no. 3, Summer 2015, (pp. 3–30), https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.29.3.3.
- Barata da Rocha, M., N. Boivin and N. Poitiers (2025), The economic impact of Trump’s tariffs on Europe: an initial assessment, Bruegel Analysis, https://www.bruegel.org/analysis/economic-impact-trumps-tariffs-europe-initial-assessment#footnote5_ji1p5yn.
- Baumol, W. J. (1967), Macroeconomics of Unbalanced Growth: The Anatomy of Urban Crisis, The American Economic Review, 57(3), 415–426.
- Draghi, M. (2024a), The Future of European Competitiveness – A competitiveness strategy for Europe, European Commission: Directorate-General for Communication, Brussels, https://commission.europa.eu/document/download/97e481fd-2dc3-412d-be4c-f152a8232961_en.
- Draghi, M. (2024b), The Future of European Competitiveness – In-depth analysis and recommendations, European Commission: Directorate-General for Communication, Brussels, https://commission.europa.eu/document/download/ec1409c1-d4b4-4882-8bdd-3519f86bbb92_en?filename=The%20future%20of%20European%20competitiveness_%20In-depth%20analysis%20and%20recommendations_0.pdf.
- Eurofound (2013), Monitoring and managing restructuring in the 21st century, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.
- European Commission (2022), Labour Market and Wage developments in Europe – Annual Review 2022, Chapter 3, https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/ff9a3b0c-7b6e-11ed-9887-01aa75ed71a1/language-en.
- European Commission (2023a), Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Hassan, E., Siöland, L., Akbaba, B., Cinova, D. et al., Annual report on intra-EU labour mobility 2023, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2767/59413.
- European Commission (2023b), Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council Establishing an EU Talen Pool, COM(2023) 716 final, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:52023PC0716.
- European Commission (2024a), Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Labour market and wage developments in Europe – Annual review 2024, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2767/888580.
- European Commission (2024b), Directorate-General for Economic and Financial Affairs,. Productivity growth in the EU: is there a trade-off with employment growth? Special topic of the Autumn 2024 Economic Forecasts, https://economy-finance.ec.europa.eu/economic-forecast-and-surveys/economic-forecasts/autumn-2024-economic-forecast-gradual-rebound-adverse-environment/productivity-growth-eu-there-trade-employment-growth_en.
- European Commission (2025a), Commission Communication – A Competitiveness Compass for the EU, COM(2025) 30 final, https://commission.europa.eu/document/download/10017eb1-4722-4333-add2-e0ed18105a34_en.
- European Commission (2025b), Commission Communication – The Clean Industrial Deal: A joint roadmap for competitiveness and decarbonisation, COM(2025) 85 final, https://commission.europa.eu/document/download/9db1c5c8-9e82-467b-ab6a-905feeb4b6b0_en?filename=Communication%20-%20Clean%20Industrial%20Deal_en.pdf.
- European Commission (2025c), Commission Communication – The Union of Skills, COM(2025) 90 final, https://employment-social-affairs.ec.europa.eu/document/download/915b147d-c5af-44bb-9820-c252d872fd31_en?filename=Communication%20-%20Union%20of%20Skills.pdf.
- European Commission (2025d), Commission Communication – Industrial Action Plan for the European automotive sector, COM(2025) 95 final, https://transport.ec.europa.eu/document/download/89b3143e-09b6-4ae6-a826-932b90ed0816_en?filename=Communication%20-%20Action%20Plan.pdf.
- European Commission (2025e), Commission Communication – AI Continent Action Plan, COM(2025) 165 final.
- European Commission (2025f), Commission Regulation – Amending Regulation (EU) 2021/691 as regards support to workers affected by imminent job displacement in enterprises undergoing restructuring, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CONSIL%3AST_10835_2025_INIT.
- European Commission (2025g), Commission Communication – Employment and Social Developments in Europe 2025, forthcoming.
- Eurostat (2022), Employment and value added in EU exports - an analysis with FIGARO data, Statistics Explained, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Employment_and_value_added_in_EU_exports_-_an_analysis_with_FIGARO_data.
- Eurostat (2025), EU population diversity by citizenship and country of birth, Statistics Explained, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=EU_population_diversity_by_citizenship_and_country_of_birth.
- Foellmi, R., and J. Zweimüller (2006), Income Distribution and Demand-Induced Innovations, The Review of Economic Studies, 73(4), Article 4.
- Herrendorf, B., R. Rogerson and Á. Valentinyi, (2013), Two Perspectives on Preferences and Structural Transformation, American Economic Review, 103(7), 2752–2789, https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.103.7.2752.
- Kongsamut, P., S. Rebelo and D. Xie (2001), Beyond Balanced Growth, The Review of Economic Studies, 68(4), Article 4.
- Lewis, L. T., R.Monarch, M. Sposi and J. Zhang (2021), Structural Change and Global Trade, Journal of the European Economic Association, 1–37.
- Litardi, C. and S. Widera (2025), Tech employment in the EU – What happened after 2023’s big redundancy wave?, European Restructuring Monitor, Eurofound.
- Ngai, L. R., and C. A. Pissarides (2007), Structural Change in a Multisector Model of Growth, American Economic Review, 97(1), 429–443, https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.97.1.429.
- Pasinetti, L. L. (1983), Structural Change and Economic Growth: A Theoretical Essay on the Dynamics of the Wealth of Nations, Cambridge University Press.
- Rowthorn, R. and R. Ramaswamy (1997), Deindustrialisation: Causes and Implications, Economic Issues, No. 10, International Monetary Fund, https://www.imf.org/EXTERNAL/PUBS/FT/ISSUES10/issue10.pdf.
- Tasci, M. (2025), US: an elusive quest for more manufacturing jobs, J.P. Morgan Economic Research.