Country report

1. STEM education

The attractiveness of science, technology, engineering and mathematics studies (STEM) is relatively low in Slovakia and shows little sign of improving. In 2023 the share of tertiary students enrolled in STEM programmes (23%) was lower than the EU average (26.9%), and well below the proposed EU target of 32%. While this share has remained stable since 2015 (23%), the absolute number of students enrolled in STEM has declined, partly due to demographic trends affecting enrolments. Among STEM fields, ‘engineering, manufacturing and construction’ is the most frequent choice (52.9% vs EU 55%), followed by ‘information and communication technologies’ where Slovakia stands above the EU average, at 27.5% compared to 20%. The ‘natural sciences, mathematics and statistics’ field appears to be the least popular choice, with just 19.6% of enrolments, well below the EU average of 25%. The share of STEM graduates in Slovakia has remained broadly stable over the years, at around 20% between 2015-2023. Over the same period, the EU average has remained stable, but at the much higher rate of around 25% (Figure 1). In vocational education and training (VET), the proportion of students enrolled in STEM programmes in 2023 was 38.9%, slightly above the EU average of 36.3%.

The overall number of STEM educated professionals is insufficient to meet labour market needs, especially in ICT. STEM graduates in Slovakia have a higher employment rate than other tertiary graduates (98.6% vs 91.4% for non-STEM graduates). They also have one of the highest employment rates in the EU (average: 89.6.% in 2024.) According to the European centre for the development of vocational training (Cedefop), ICT professionals are among the 10 most sought-after professional profiles, with an estimated 3.6% annual employment growth between 2022-2030, higher than the EU average at 2.5% (). In addition, job vacancies will increase significantly due to expected retirements: it is estimated that 9 200 ICT professionals and 2 900 engineering and research professionals will be needed by 2030 (Cedefop, 2025). In addition to the low share of STEM graduates, Slovakia’s recovery and resilience plan (RRP, 2021) identifies the loss of talent caused by demographic trends as one of the main challenges for the country and sets out various measures that are currently being implemented to attract and keep qualified people in the country.

Boosting enrolments in doctoral studies in STEM could help improve skills supply, innovation potential and competitiveness. The share of STEM PhD enrolments (as a share of total PhD enrolments) was at 36.2% in 2023 in Slovakia (EU: 41.1%) and has remained broadly stable since 2015. The proportion of doctoral students in ICT (3.5% of all students in 2023) is close to the EU average (3.8% in 2023), lower than the proposed EU target at 5% by 2030. The overall number of PhD students in STEM studies decreased between 2015 and 2023, in line with demographic trends.

Women are underrepresented in STEM fields, notably in ICT and engineering. Women’s participation in STEM tertiary education has declined significantly (from 35.6% in 2015 to 29.4% in 2023), and is below both the EU average (32.2% in 2023) and the proposed EU target of 40%. When enrolling in STEM fields, women tend to privilege ‘natural science and mathematics’ (62.1% in 2023), in line with EU trends. By contrast, only 18.3% of all doctoral ICT students are women, compared to an EU average of 24.3%, significantly below the proposed EU target of 33%. Research conducted in 2023 by a Slovak non-governmental organisation found that girls are discouraged from pursuing technical tertiary and ICT programmes by a lack of information. Addressing the gender gap would help increase overall STEM enrolment and graduation rates. In medium-level VET, only 11.6% of pupils enrolled in STEM are female (EU: 15.4%), while the proposed EU target of at least 25% by 2030.

Low achievement in mathematics and reading reduces the pool of candidates for STEM studies. While student performance at school is a key driver of students’ interest in STEM, Slovak students demonstrate declining skills in mathematics and reading. Moreover, the abolition of the obligation to take an upper secondary school leaving exam (Matura) in maths to be admitted to higher education programmes requiring maths has led to a drop in the number of learners taking this exam (only 11.6% in 2023). Therefore, secondary school graduates might be less prepared for technical studies than in the past. In 2024/25 around two thirds (66.1%) of Slovak candidates were admitted to STEM-related tertiary education studies without needing to pass an entrance test. Younger pupils also perform below the EU average in mathematics (but not in science), with results that have not changed significantly compared to 2019().

An integrated approach towards STEM education and better teacher preparation could help improve student performance. According to a recent study, curriculum rigidity, rooted in traditional teaching methods, is one of the main challenges in STEM education in Slovakia. Although the ongoing curriculum reform aims to strengthen interdisciplinary teaching, its implementation is at an initial phase. Its success will largely depend on the necessary preparation and methodological knowledge of teachers to adopt modern teaching approaches, such as inquiry-based and interdisciplinary learning. The gap is partly due to outdated teacher training programmes at pedagogical faculties, which often focus on single-subject specialisation rather than integrated STEM education. The same study also found that inconsistent professional development opportunities for teachers and outdated infrastructure also affect the quality of teaching of STEM subjects. The ongoing reform at primary level is a good opportunity to reinforce the links between maths and science in the curricula. Slovakia also faces a decline in the attractiveness of the teaching profession, further exacerbating the shortage of STEM teachers (European Commission, 2023). Introducing both financial and non-financial incentives to attract young graduates to STEM teaching as well as expanding alternative pathways to enter the teaching profession could help to address this challenge.

Slovakia is working towards a comprehensive strategy for STEAM education. The ambition is to implement policies fully aligned with the goals of the EU STEM education strategic plan. The proposal will aim to (i) improve the quality and accessibility of STEAM education at all levels, (ii) increase interdisciplinarity in curricula and promote inquiry and project-oriented teaching, and (iii) enhance lifelong learning for teachers in STEAM. The National Centre for Digital Transformation aims to create a sustainable ecosystem to support digital transformation of regional education system. Local initiatives are in place to increase the enrolment of VET pupils in STEM with EU support. These include an Erasmus+ project on Sustainable Energy Centres for Vocational Excellence implemented by the Secondary Industrial School of Construction and Geodesy, the Technical University of Kosice and the Slovak Chamber of Civil Engineers. Two calls for proposals to innovate teaching methods in STEAM-related subjects at VET and in grammar schools are planned to be published in 2026. Civil society organisations’ initiatives such as You too in IT provide specialised career programmes for women to enter new jobs in IT, while ‘The women’s algorithm’ helps foster girls’ interest in STEM studies.

2. Early childhood education and care

Ambitious reforms are underway, aiming to increase participation in early childhood education and care (ECEC), which is still among the lowest in the EU. For children between three and the starting age of compulsory primary education, the enrolment rate in ECEC has increased by 2.2 pps since 2022 and stands at 80.8%, still significantly below the EU average 94% in 2023(). There are substantial regional differences across the country. In 2023, 88.2% of children in western Slovakia participated in ECEC, compared to just 70.4% in eastern Slovakia. In 2025, kindergarten capacities have been expanded in the framework of the RRP and financing was transferred from municipalities to the state budget. Improving access and affordability of ECEC for the youngest children is key, as only 68.9% of three-year-olds participated in ECEC in 2023 (EU: 90.3%). The participation rate of children under three in formal childcare significantly increased (by 4.1 pp since 2023) but remains the lowest in the EU (at 5.1% in 2024 compared to 39.3% in the EU). Slovak pre-primary teachers receive one of the lowest starting salaries in the EU (adjusted for the standard of living, Eurydice, 2025). Further investing in high quality and available ECEC services in Slovakia could help improve overall educational outcomes. It could also help reduce child poverty, as the risk of poverty and social exclusion for children has been growing (from 18.4% in 2020 to 25.3% in 2023). Lack of access to high quality ECEC has a particularly negative impact on children from disadvantaged backgrounds, affecting their foundational skills and leading to inequalities later in life.

Early intervention services for the youngest children are often provided by private entities, but national policies are underway. ‘Omama’ is a non-governmental programme that helps develop children’s foundational skills. Similar programmes at national level could be beneficial for vulnerable children, in particular from marginalised Roma communities (MRC), along with expanding the work of counselling and prevention centres or strengthening support of paediatric care for children under three. These systemic interventions could have a positive spill-over effect to other areas, including improving gender equality (Slovakia ranks substantially lower on the Gender Equality Index 2024 than EU average). In 2024, Slovakia adopted a concept for developing the financing of social services which creates a unified system of upbringing and education. From 2025, the European Social Fund plus programme will co-finance the development of nurseries to strengthen staff capacity as well as parenting skills among parents from disadvantaged backgrounds (EUR 40 million).

3. School education and basic skills

Absenteeism in schools and rising early school leaving in rural areas are causes for concern. The proportion of early leavers from education and training (ELET) in the 18-24 age group is comparatively low (7.5% vs EU 9.3% in 2024). However, recent trends in rural areas give rise to concern, as the ELET rate has been steadily increasing (by 3.4 pps between 2021-2024), reaching 9.8% in 2024(). Long-term absenteeism is high, as the share of students who reported that they had missed school for more than three consecutive months was 11.2%, among the highest from the reporting EU countries (PISA 2022). In 2022/23, Slovak pupils missed around 60% more hours at school than they missed in 2017/2018 (Slovak State School Inspectorate, 2024). The findings are particularly worrying in the case of children from MRC, as the absences are mainly due to truancy. A recent proposal for a legislative amendment provides for a double regime of justification for absence (schools with a higher number of absences will be subject to a stricter regime), but further actions might be necessary to address this challenge.

Civic knowledge levels are declining. According to the International Civic and Citizenship Education Study (ICCS, 2022), the share of Slovak eighth grade students with a suitable level of civic knowledge (at B+ level) dropped substantially from 71% in 2009 to 60.5% in 2022 (slightly below the EU average at 63.1%). Only 46% of Slovak teachers had training on citizens’ rights and responsibilities (vs 53% on average of the OECD surveyed countries). Slovak young people show relatively low political engagement, as only around one third of surveyed students reported being quite or very interested in political and social issues (ICCS, 2023).

Basic skills show a sharp decline accompanied by widening inequalities. Together with declining top performance in basic skills and relatively weak creative thinking among Slovak students, this may hamper Slovakia’s human capital development and the competitiveness and innovation potential of its economy. The share of 15-year-olds from disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds performing well in any domain was 7.9%, substantially below the EU average (16.3%), and a significant drop from 14.1% in 2018, pointing to widening inequalities (Figure 2). A recent spending review (ME, Ministry of Finance, 2025) analysed the poor results in primary and secondary education and identified several underlying factors, including (i) low expenditure in education, (ii) low quality of small schools, and (iii) failure to mitigate the impact of poor socio-economic status. In addition, another national analysis found that the fall in students’ results is influenced among others by (i) low participation in pre-primary education, (ii) regional disparities, and (iii) not having Slovak as native language. The 2025 Country Specific Recommendation (CSR) calls for strengthening the teaching of basic skills, including for children from disadvantaged backgrounds, while ensuring equal and inclusive access to quality education at all levels.

Slovakia has implemented the curricular reform in around half of primary schools and plans to reform the secondary school network. Slovakia plans to gradually introduce the new curriculum in all primary schools from September 2026(). The implementation of the reform is supported through a methodological portal and regional support centres. Provision of new high quality learning and teaching materials (ME, 2025) as well as in-service training on the reform for teachers will be crucial for its successful implementation. Furthermore, ME has started the process of optimising the secondary school network to improve its efficiency and strengthen cooperation with employers and universities. In 2025, the self-governing regions approved 52 projects that start merging secondary schools (ME, 2025).

Increasing the attractiveness of the teaching profession and support to teachers would help improve the quality of education. Teacher shortages and non-competitive salaries, together with unqualified teaching, affects the quality of teaching and learning. In the 2023/2024 school year, for example, a national inspection found that ICT subjects were taught by unqualified teachers in almost half the lower secondary schools visited. Some policy improvements are under way. The salaries of teaching and professional staff in regional education rose by 7% in September 2025 and will be increased by a further 7% from January 2026. In addition, the government has introduced a compensation allowance to support teachers in regions facing staff shortages. The 2025 Country Specific Recommendation for Slovakia calls for investing in teacher training and increasing enrolment in STEM education programmes.

Measures enhancing inclusive education and desegregation are under way. Their effective implementation is key, as school segregation based on socio-economic background in Slovakia (0.283) is among the highest among surveyed countries (PISA 2022). The amendment to the Education Act, effective from 2025, introduces morning-only classes (thus avoiding double-shifts), with full implementation required by August 2029. Newly introduced ‘adaptation classes’ for pupils with special educational needs could help faster integration into mainstream education. Under the European Commission’s Technical Support Instrument, the Ministry of Education in cooperation with UNICEF will support strengthening capacity building of stakeholders to implement desegregation of Roma children in education and to monitor the elimination and prevention of segregation in schools (2025-27). As of September 2025, Slovakia also introduced a mandatory education for children with migrant background and continues providing contributions for their language courses.

4. Vocational education and training

Slovakia has a relatively large VET sector with good employment prospects of graduates. In 2023, 69.7% of pupils enrolled in medium-level education are in VET, higher than the EU average at 52.4%. Employment prospects of VET graduates are very good in Slovakia, as more than eight out of ten (85.6%) of recent VET graduates were in employment in 2024, above the EU average (of 80%). Nevertheless, the unemployment rate of VET graduates was higher than the EU average, indicating a mismatch. In 2024, the share of recent VET graduates who have experienced work-based learning stood at 58.5%, below the EU average 65.2% (). Improving the quality of curricula and teaching and ensuring more flexible entry paths into VET teaching for professionals would help reap the potential of VET.

Slovakia made progress on its strategy of setting up centres of vocational excellence and enhanced support to VET teachers and disadvantaged learners. In 2024, 18 VET schools across the country have been selected to set up centres designed to provide cutting-edge technology and support regional development. Furthermore, a national project provides enhanced support to teachers and disadvantaged learners (Cedefop, ReferNet, 2025).

Permeability between VET and higher education is being increased and skills intelligence enhanced. Slovakia’s National Implementation Plan provides for post-secondary VET transformation and integration with higher education pathways. Slovakia is strengthening skills intelligence through enhanced data systems. In 2024, the Sector Councils Alliance began forecasting labour market trends and updating occupational and qualification standards. Since 2024, a national survey for VET schools has been collecting data on employment outcomes regarding the relevance of VET curricula in Slovakia (Cedefop, ReferNet, 2025). A portal uplatnenie.gov.sk provides information on graduates’ labour market outcomes.

5. Tertiary education

Tertiary education remains below the EU average and there is a wide gender gap. Only 37.2% of Slovaks aged 25-34 had a tertiary education degree (level 5-8) in 2024 (vs EU average at 44.2%), following a slight decrease (by 2.6 pps) from 2023, and well below the EU target. The gender gap (18.9 pps) remained among the highest in the EU (11.2 pps) in 2024(). The proportion of graduates at doctoral level has slightly decreased during the last decade (from 1.8% in 2013 to 1.3% in 2023) and now stands at the EU average.

Student mobility is comparatively high. The share of outward mobile graduates (credit and degree, ISCED 5-8) is in Slovakia at 21.0%, among the highest in the EU (11.0% in 2023), and already close to reach the 2030 EU-level target (23%). Inward degree mobility (students from the EU in Slovakia, ISCED 5-8) was at 3.7%, which is also higher than the EU average (at 2.7% in 2023).

Performance contracts with higher education institutions were introduced in 2024. They are a new tool to support the profiling and diversification of higher education institutions based on their specific strengths and potential. The subsidy contract with each public higher education institution contains measurable indicators, the fulfilment of which is a condition for providing the relevant part of the state subsidy (in total 301.5 million EUR for 2024-2026). Furthermore, the Centre for Scientific and Technical Information carried out a first student satisfaction survey and an employer satisfaction survey (with more than 4 000 companies and organisations involved), the outcomes of which are available online (ME, 2024).

Substantial changes enhancing higher education quality are underway. An amendment to the Higher Education Act in force from 2025 aims, among others, to increase the openness of Slovak universities to international scientists and scholars. It also enhances decision-making processes and improves the management of public universities’ assets. Furthermore, a new Higher Education Act is being developed with several ambitious goals (see the Box).

6. Adult skills and learning

Participation of adults in training has gradually increased and is close to the national target of 50%. In 2022, 49.5% of adults participated in training compared to 42.6% in 2016, which is well above the EU average of 39.5% (Adult education survey, Eurostat 2022). Similarly to other countries, adults with lower qualifications are much less likely to participate in training. Only 18.6% of adults with less than lower secondary education participated in training compared to 46.1% with upper secondary education, and a much higher share of 66.5% for those with tertiary education levels. The PIAAC survey of adult skills recorded substantial age-related skills losses in literacy among adults, including among young adults aged 27-34 (OECD, 2024). The drop is striking over the last decade, especially in literacy (with a drop in the average score of 19.4 points). Subsequently, around a quarter (24%) of Slovak adults can understand only short and simple sentences. Nevertheless, Slovak adults performed around the EU average for all three skills measured (literacy, numeracy and adaptive problem solving). Further efforts are needed, as over half of businesses in Slovakia reported that their workforce has some degree of skill gap (54%).

Slovakia adopted a new law on adult learning with effect from January 2025, alongside an action plan for 2025-2027. The law introduced micro-credentials as an important instrument for upskilling and reskilling. It aims to strengthen adult education system and encourage non-formal education, introduces an individualised support tool for adult education and individual learning accounts intended to boost adults’ motivation to participate in education. However, unlike in the Council recommendation on individual learning accounts, the law does not allow yet for entitlements to be transferred between financial years and does not provide for paid training leave.