Country report

1. STEM education

The share of graduates in STEM is low, partly linked to the image of STEM studies and jobs. In 2023, the share of tertiary students enrolled in STEM subjects was 18.6% (EU: 26.9%), substantially below the proposed EU 2030 target of 32%. Of these, 30.2% were female (EU: 32.2%), below the proposed EU target of 40%. The share of doctoral students enrolled in ICT subjects was 3.6% (vs EU: 3.8%), below the proposed EU target of 5%. Small-scale qualitative studies in secondary education indicate that two persistent factors influence the decision not to choose STEM in higher education. First, STEM studies are seen as more demanding and therefore riskier, a perception shared by students, teachers and parents. Second, STEM is viewed as dominated by white men. The lack of inclusiveness and few role models discourage girls and students with a migration background from studying STEM (Youngworks, 2021, 2023).

STEM uptake in vocational education and training (VET) remains limited, especially among female pupils and those with a migrant background. In 2023, only 19.0% of VET students were enrolled in STEM, well below the EU average of 36.3% and the EU 2030 proposed target of 45%. Female participation is particularly low: among VET STEM learners: only 10.5% were female, against the EU average of 15.4% and the proposed target of 25%. According to national data, students with a migrant background are 20% less likely to pursue STEM fields (CBS, 2022). To address this issue, the Netherlands is implementing the Action Plan for Green and Digital Jobs. This plan promotes early exposure to technical fields, especially for female pupils, and focuses on aligning education with labour market needs in the green and digital sectors. It includes targeted investments, public-private partnerships and measures to support transitions to a circular economy. In addition, the national strategy for gender and LGBTIQ+ equality aims to increase gender equality in education, with a specific focus on the underrepresentation of girls in STEM. Structural challenges remain, including persistent teacher shortages in technical subjects, which continue to affect the availability and attractiveness of STEM pathways in vocational education.

Demand for STEM specialists significantly exceeds supply. The labour market demand in STEM is monitored through various mechanisms. Platform Talent for Technology, a national knowledge centre in the field of technology, monitors technical job vacancies alongside student participation in in secondary education, VET and higher education. Vacancies are reported separately for technical and ICT jobs, with dashboard distinguishes skill levels. The number of vacancies for technical jobs that require higher education had increased from 3 900 in the first quarter of 2016 to 16 400 in the fourth quarter of 2024, while ICT vacancies requiring a tertiary degree increased from 9 900 to 18 700. More than half of the vacancies in 2023 were difficult to fill according to employers (UWV, 2024).

Gender stereotypes play a role in skills shortages. While 63% of male graduates from universities of applied sciences in a technical field enter the labour market in a technical field, the same is true only for 38% of female students (Van Langen, Jenniskens & Van den Hurk, 2019). For master’s graduates from research universities, the gap is smaller (91% vs 82%). According to the Dutch Education Council, the underrepresentation of girls in STEM is mainly linked to gendered beliefs about abilities and suitable professions, which limit choices.Research also shows the impact of bias in career guidance in secondary education. The Alliance ‘Becoming Who you are’, brings together government and civil society organisations to tackle gender stereotypes in education. Moreover, Dutch funding programmes Sterk Techniekonderwijs (focused on pre-VET secondary education) and Techkwadraat (primary and secondary education) require funded projects to involve underrepresented groups, including girls.

2. Early childhood education and care

The funding system for early childhood education and care (ECEC) is under review to expand the hours of care. 93.2% of children from the age of 3 participate in ECEC, below the EU average (94.6%) and the EU target for 2030 (96%). Below the age of 3, children at risk of poverty or social exclusion are less likely to participate in ECEC than those who are not at risk. 30% of the facilities offering early childhood education for disadvantaged children aged 2.5-4 face staff shortages, corresponding to 25% of their total staff on average (Bakker et al., 2023). To make financing ECEC simpler and improve parents’ work-life balance, the government is reviewing the funding system, including the introduction of an income-independent voucher for parents (SZW, 2024a). The current state funding for ECEC is income-dependent, irrespective of whether parents work or not, and is paid directly to parents. As a first step towards a new funding system, starting in 2025, working parents pay only 4% of childcare costs themselves, regardless of their income. Non-working parents and single-income families are excluded from this scheme for now and continue to pay an income-dependent contribution (SZW, 2024a).

Staff shortages may hamper targeted support for disadvantaged children. To address shortages, the Minister of Social Affairs introduced a new type of position for unqualified staff and provided incentives for qualified employees to work more hours (SZW, 2024b). Facilities may employ staff, including some who have not obtained their pedagogical qualification yet. Since January 2025, new rules require B1 Dutch proficiency for after-school staff and B2 for day-care staff (SZW, 2024c). Monitoring is ongoing (Das et al., 2024) but the first survey shows that 84% of pedagogical staff already meet the requirements.

3. School education and basic skills

Students’ basic skills have declined sharply over the past decade, but the share of top performers in mathematics and science are among the highest in the EU. In 2015, the share of underachieving 15-year-olds in the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) was already above the EU 2030 target (15%) but well below the EU average in mathematics, reading and science. However, by 2022 it had increased substantially in mathematics (2015: 16.7%; 2022: 27.4%) and in science (2015: 18.5%; 2022: 27.3%) and had almost doubled in reading (2015: 18.1%; 2022: 34.6%) (OECD, 2023). About one in two foreign-born students underperforms in mathematics, compared to just over one in three native-born students with foreign-born parents (37.9%). Despite the significant decrease since 2012, the Netherlands still has the highest top performance rate in mathematics in the EU. Recent monitoring data on basic skills indicate that student proficiency is still below pre-pandemic levels, especially in lower secondary education (OCW, 2024a). In response to these trends, in 2022 the Netherlands launched the ‘Master plan for basic skills’ to promote Dutch reading and writing skills, mathematics, citizenship education and digital literacy. By 2025, the initiative has reached 7 800 schools and 95% of all students in primary and secondary education (OCW, 2025b). According to the monitoring report, 80% of primary schools and 60% of secondary schools in the first cohort reported clear progress in language and mathematics skills (OCW, 2024b). In its 2025 country-specific recommendations, the Council of the EU recommended that the Netherlands takes measures to improve basic skills, including by addressing teacher shortages and tailored support to disadvantaged schools, and boost participation in STEM programmes with targeted educational support and career advice, especially for women and students with a migrant background (EU Council, 2025).

Young people, particularly disadvantaged ones, face significant civic and digital literacy gaps. In the 2022 International Civic and Citizenship Education Study, 62.3% of 8th graders showed an adequate level of civic knowledge, close to the EU average (63.1%). Girls outscored boys by only 10 points (vs 26 score points in the EU-17). Disparities between disadvantaged and advantaged students (47.6% vs 83.2% having sufficient knowledge) are slightly better than the EU-17 average gap (35.6 percentage points vs EU-17: 36.2 percentage points) (Schulz, et al., 2025). Most Dutch students are low achievers in digital skills, showing the largest differences in the EU by the level of parental education (58.1 points; EU: 32.8 points) in the 2023 International Computer and Information Literacy Study (European Commission, 2024). To boost students’ digital skills, provisional learning goals for civic and digital literacy in primary education and first-cycle secondary education are developed within the ongoing curriculum reform (OCW, 2024c). The revised learning goals cover learning about how artificial intelligence works, the functioning of digital and social media, ethical aspects, and how digital media and society influence each other (SLO, 2024). The learning goals have been pilot-tested, they have been sent to Parliament and are ready for gradual implementation by schools.

Despite efforts, equity in education has not improved. The Netherlands is one of the four EU countries where at least 20% of students from disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds performed well in 2022 (reaching level 4) in at least one PISA domain (NL: 21.7%; EU: 16.3%). However, this share represents a 19-percentage point drop in well-performing disadvantaged students since 2015. The learning goals in the curriculum are being streamlined, with a focus on basic skills. However, several measures that address disadvantaged pupils, including subsidies for ‘bridge classes’, were abolished or had their financing reduced as part of the 2024 and 2025 budget cuts (Government, 2025). A recent evaluation of government policies for equity in primary and secondary education between 2017-2023 shows that government spending on equity measures doubled between 2016 and 2023 and amounted to EUR 1.5 billion in 2023 (Reuvers et al., 2024). The evaluation found that equity did not demonstrably improve, despite considerable efforts and investments, with early selection and strong differentiation in secondary education seen as the most important factors contributing to inequity. This is in line with the 2021 recommendation of the Dutch Education Council to postpone selection until after lower secondary school and instead introduce ‘bridge classes’ with flexible student groupings for a more mixed-ability education.

The transition test is found to improve equity. Under the law on transition adopted in February 2022, a literacy and numeracy test were introduced in 2023/2024, replacing the earlier tests in primary education. The advice issued to pupils by their primary school in January on which track to follow is adjusted upwards if they perform better in the test in February. The aim is to give pupils with a low assessment from their primary school another chance to progress to a higher secondary track as the transition test serves as a supplement to the school advice. After the test was held in 2024, more students followed higher-level tracks in secondary education (OCW, 2025a). In February 2025, students took the transition test for the second time.

The rate of early leavers from education and training increased in 2024. It increased from 6.2% in 2023 to 7% in 2024, but is still below the EU average of 9.4% and the EU target of below 9%. National data based on the number of young people aged 12-23 obtaining an upper-secondary qualification show an improvement. The number of dropouts from secondary vocational education (middelbaar beroepsonderwijs/MBO) decreased from 24 286 in 2022-2023 to 22 308 in 2023-2024 (OCW, 2025c). The total number of dropouts from secondary education reached 29 163, still far above the maximum 18 000 target for 2026. Students who enter VMBO (voorbereidend middelbaar beroepsonderwijs) or MBO from special secondary education are particularly at risk of dropping out during the first few years of upper secondary vocational education: 60% of them drop out. Research is currently being conducted on effective measures to improve the retainment of this specific student group (OCW, 2025c). Under a new law planned for 2026, educational institutions, municipalities and several regional organisations will have to conclude collaborative agreements on taking additional measures in order to prevent dropout and youth unemployment. The Minister of Education also intends to enable multiple entry points into vocational programmes and increase the opportunity to obtain partial certificates to accommodate students’ diverse learning needs (OCW, 2025c).

4. Vocational education and training

The Dutch vocational education and training (VET) system continues to perform strongly on work-based learning and graduate employability. In 2024, 90.5% of recent VET graduates were in employment, well above the EU average of 80.0% and the EU target of 82% by 2025. Nearly all VET students (94.3%) gained work-based learning experience during their studies, compared to the EU average of 65.2% and the EU-wide 2025 target of 60%. Work-based learning, particularly through apprenticeships, plays a key role in supporting transitions to the labour market and preventing early leaving from education and training.

VET institutions are adapting to new roles in skills and innovation ecosystems. Through the national Lifelong Learning Catalyst programme (2022-2027), senior secondary VET schools collaborate with universities of research and of applied sciences, regional partners and employers to support upskilling in transition sectors. The programme maps future skills needs, professionalises providers, promotes learning culture and supports regional co-creation labs. It has secured EUR 167 million in unconditional funding (with EUR 225 million conditionally). In 2024, 36 projects received grants to build capacity for lifelong learning. The micro-credential VET pilot under the Npuls programme (2024-2031), co-financed by the Dutch Recovery and Resilience Planand led by the Ministry of Education, adds flexibility to the system by certifying short, recognisable and accredited learning modules. VET schools are also strengthening their role in national innovation networks, including through the VET Council’s new membership in the Knowledge Coalition.

A work agenda for VET 2023-2027 was agreed in 2023. The agenda (Government, 2023) focuses on equal opportunities and stronger links with the labour market, making education more responsive to changing skills needs. It includes also measures to improve student welfare, support access to quality internships and promote citizenship education. Regional plans supported by national subsidies aim to attract new students, particularly in shortage areas such as STEM. Strategic partnerships between VET schools and employers support this effort, alongside incentives for second-career professionals. The government promotes professional teacher development through Comenius Teaching Fellow grants, recently extended to VET teachers (NRO, 2025). These measures aim to increase educational innovation and make teaching in VET more attractive. To ensure effective implementation of the agenda, the government fosters collaboration between VET institutions, local authorities and employers through regional partnerships, subsidy schemes and a national programme for increasing the access and quality of VET internships.

5. Tertiary education

The tertiary educational attainment rate is among the highest in the EU. Of the population aged 25-34, 55.1% holds a tertiary degree (EU average: 44.2%). Tertiary attainment is also high among the non-EU-born population (47.8%, EU average: 38.4%). In 2023, 15.5% of Dutch higher education graduates had had a learning mobility experience abroad, above the EU average of 11.0%, but far from the EU target of 23%. By contrast, only 3.0% of graduates obtained their degree abroad (EU: 4.4%).

In April 2025, Parliament approved the government’s proposal to substantially cut the higher education and research budget. The total reduction amounts to EUR 1.2 billion, of which over EUR 500 million has been implemented immediately and the rest will be phased in by 2028. Cuts affect the funding for international students, grants for young researchers and university teachers, and funding via the Dutch Research Council and the research and science fund. The budget was adopted following lengthy debates and despite protests and legal concerns raised by universities and student organisations (e.g. UNL, 2025). Meanwhile, following the example of other European countries, the Minister of Education asked the Dutch Research Council to develop a special funding arrangement to attract top international academics in fields that are of ‘evident importance’ to the Netherlands (OCW, 2025d). This is prompted by the increased international mobility of researchers, particularly from the US. As there is no additional funding for this policy, it comes at the expense of available research grants.

The Netherlands is trying to curb internationalisation in higher education. Dutch universities are highly attractive to international students offering the most English taught programmes in proportion to its population size in the EU, excluding the English-speaking Member States (EAIA, 2017). The Netherlands had the third-highest share of inward degree mobile in the EU in 2023, with 24.2% of graduates coming from abroad (EU: 9.2%). Over the past decade, the international students’ body at Dutch universities has expanded sharply, representing 27% of all students in 2024/2025 (OCW, 2025e) and 9% of all students at university colleges (OCW, 2025f). The ‘Internationalisation in Balance’ bill aims to limit the number of international students in several ways: (i) making Dutch the default language in higher education for teaching and administration; (ii) requiring institutions to justify teaching in another language than Dutch; (iii) requiring higher education institutions to promote Dutch language proficiency among all students; (iv) reducing funding for non-Dutch language programmes; and (v) limiting access to Dutch study grants for incoming EU students (OCW, 2024e). Universities have been critical about limiting the number of international students (UNL, 2024) and suggested an alternative by making joint agreements about reducing the number of international students without applying the condition to justify the existing non-Dutch programmes (UNL, 2025). The law has not been debated in Parliament yet, and no date has yet been set for it. The Dutch Education Council has issued a warning to the Minister of Education concerning the joint effect of declining student numbers, funding cuts and the proposed law (Education Council, 2025).

6. Adult skills and learning

The Netherlands is known for its strong emphasis on education and skills development, reflected in relatively high participation rates in adult learning compared to the EU average. In 2024, 45.3% of the Dutch population aged 25-64 participated in learning in the previous 12 months (EU average 28.1%). The participation rates of men (45.4%) and women (45.2%) are similar, suggesting a broad and inclusive engagement in adult learning across genders. According to the 2022 Adult Education Survey, the Netherlands demonstrates high participation rates across all age groups, consistently outperforming the EU average. This reflects a strong culture of lifelong learning. In 2022, adult participation in education and training stood at 56.1% (EU average 39.5%). In contrast to the overall trends in the EU, participation has experienced a slight decline since the last measurements in 2016 and remains below the national 2030 target of 62%. Contrary to the general trend in the EU, participation in the Netherlands is slightly higher in towns and suburbs compared to cities (60.1% vs 57.3%). Like in most EU countries, individuals with higher education levels participate a lot more in learning than those with lower education levels (71% vs 33.3%).

The participation rate of unemployed individuals in adult learning is high at 60.5% (vs EU 28.8%), even marginally exceeding that for employed individuals (60.4% vs EU 44.3%). This suggests that the targeted support for the unemployed is effective. However, participation disparities are evident among different demographic groups, impacting their integration into the labour market and limiting opportunities for social mobility and inclusion. The Dutch government's Education Agenda for Lifelong Development 2023-2027 (OCW, 2023b) outlines several initiatives to broaden adult learning opportunities, including simplifying participation in formal education and promoting micro-credentials, which align with EU policy ambitions. These strategies are part of a wider effort to maintain a high level of participation in adult learning.

In 2023, the Netherlands performed significantly better than the EU average in adult basic skills. Programmes like ‘Tel mee met Taal’ (‘Count on Skills’) aim to boost literacy among adults with lower educational backgrounds offering subsidies for education providers, libraries and employers to improve broader educational outcomes for adults. Although the Netherlands has a relatively high share of top performers, the gap between the highest and lowest performers in both literacy and numeracy is increasing, a trend in line with the EU average.